Читать книгу Creating Community-Led and Self-Build Homes - Field Martin - Страница 9
ОглавлениеSome historic terms for practices found within the UK’s community-led and self-build sector have already been noted in Chapter One. This chapter unpicks how the motivations underpinning local and community-led initiatives can be understood to have informed the kinds of activity that have been used to achieve particular ends.
This has been most evident in the kinds of practices or models that local projects have chosen to use for their engagements. Table 2.1 summarises the appeal of a range of ‘models’ or ‘typologies’ of local practices that have featured in the creation of local homes and neighbourhoods. These include both collaborative projects and individualistic activities.
Table 2.1: Models of community-led and self-organised housing practice
| Self-build housing: Tailor-made or designed properties, arranged by individuals or groups for their own use, including homes built by the residents themselves |
| Custom-build housing: Where households have made use of a specialist provider/developer to finalise the ‘customising’ of homes to their own choosing |
| Co-operative/mutual housing: Housing that is owned and/or controlled by the democratic membership and engagement of all the resident households |
| Tenant management organisations: Tenants and leaseholders being collectively responsible for managing local homes and housing services |
| Self-help housing: Bringing empty or derelict properties back into use through renovation works undertaken by community projects |
| Community land trusts/development trusts: Housing and other assets being owned or managed for community benefit, and at permanently affordable costs |
| Cohousing: Creating mutually supportive neighbourhoods that combine self-contained dwellings with other shared spaces, buildings and facilities |
| Low-impact housing: The design and development of dwellings to maximise the protection of the local and natural environment |
| Intentional communities: Sharing lifestyles and properties alongside others holding common social, political, or spiritual values |
| Homes to travel with: Using mobile dwellings or other temporary settings, instead of homes in more permanent places |
| ‘Community anchors’: Organisations securing the long-term stewardship of buildings, land and other facilities for the benefit of local communities |
It should be noted there is no mention here of more mainstream housing bodies or practices – bodies such as local charities, or Housing Associations, or local authority housing departments (that is, ‘council’ housing), or even almshouses – all of which at times can describe or present their activities as being ‘community-based’. Certainly, these may involve local communities and can provide invaluable housing and neighbourhood services in their own ways, but the usual decision-making structures of such bodies are invariably dominated by management or executive bodies within very professionalised and highly organised systems. It would not be the case that such structures and their services would fit with the community-led housing that has been described above. The typical scale and nature of the decisions being enacted by such executive decision-making bodies is invariably different from the local scale of collaborative or self-managed projects being depicted here; for that reason they are not included in Table 2.1.
It would also be fair to point out that several community-led housing projects have arisen in opposition to the policies and practices instigated by some mainstream bodies, sometimes as a response to a perceived lack of practical accountability by elected representatives or benefactors to their host communities. This is particularly the case for some tenant management initiatives, when local tenants have campaigned for a greater influence over the local services supplied by a housing association or a local authority housing department.
The main sections below are a substantial exploration of the different models listed in Table 2.1 and a basis for understanding how these can link with the intentions and definitions listed in Table 1.1. Detailed information is set out on a comprehensive range of practices and activities through which community-based housing initiatives take place and underlying motivations could be met, including:
•definitions of key terms (in the main provided by community-led organisations);
•notes on the key appeal and motivations behind each practice;
•comment on the recent context and examples of each practice;
•notes on relevant organisations offering support and advice;
•some points on implications for future policy.
The thrust of each section is to provide a full description of what different practices do, and their main context(s). Broad descriptions and the location of individual examples are provided, plus details of associated bodies of interest. There has been no attempt to compile detailed case studies as many already exist on websites and in the publications and reports from the community-led and academic/research sectors. Where projects are named, contact details are given so that further information can be sought, if desired.
Finally, some short summaries are included to suggest how the success of projects can be justly interpreted as examples of how the application of different practices have fruitfully connected with underlying drivers and motivations.
2.1 Self-build and custom-build housing
The classic notion of this is households arranging the creation of their own homes. The terms self-build and custom-build denote two complementary things: (a) tailor-made or designed properties, arranged by individuals or groups for their own use, including homes built by the residents; (b) households making use of a specialist provider or developer to finalise the ‘customising’ of homes to their own choosing.
Clarification of terms
•Self-build is the term that has been used to denote ‘housing projects where someone directly organises the design and construction of their new home’ (National Custom and Self Build Association).
The most obvious example is a traditional ‘DIY self-build’ home, where the self-builder organises the design wanted and then personally undertakes much of the actual construction work involved’ (National Custom and Self Build Association)
•Custom-build has become a term being used to denote ‘homes built through households working with a specialist developer to design and deliver the final unit(s)’. (National Custom and Self Build Association)
A legal definition of self-build and custom housebuilding in the Self-build and Custom Housebuilding Act 2015 (as amended by the Housing and Planning Act 2016, www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2015/17/contents/enacted/data.htm) states:
‘self-build and custom housebuilding’ means the building or completion by:
(a)individuals,
(b)associations of individuals, or
(c)persons working with or for individuals or associations of individuals, of houses to be occupied as homes by those individuals.
The guidance notes that a minimal ‘tweaking’ of dwellings principally designed and built by property speculators will not meet the ‘custom-build’ description.
•Community self-build is the term that has been used to describe ‘a group of local people in housing need, building their own homes … Those without building skills, participate on the basis that they are prepared to make the necessary time commitment and be prepared to learn new skills’. (Community Self Build Agency).
•Group self-build usually refers to ‘a group of individuals coming together to build the homes together by pooling their resources’ (Community Self Build Agency).
•The Self Build Register/Right to Build Register stems from a legal duty on every local authority in England to maintain a register of people who are looking for a serviced plot to build their own home and to grant ongoing development permissions to meet the demand identified within three years.
Key appeal (self-build and custom-build)
The attraction of being able to ‘build’ a property for one’s own household is an ideal clearly shared by many. National surveys have consistently shown over 50% of respondents aspire to undertake such a venture at some time in their lives (e.g. from the Building Societies Association, 2011). The flexibility of organising or undertaking the construction of one’s own property has enabled many households to build in very singular locations, and to very personal specifications. It has also been used by community projects seeking to maximise local participation and neighbourhood impact.
The National Custom & Self Build Association (NaCSBA) has listed the following variations (and the respective levels of ‘hands-on’ effort required) in how such schemes might take place:
Self-build home: a household manages the design and construction process of a ‘one-off’ property and undertakes a fair proportion of the actual building work.
Contractor-built home: a household arranges the design of a ‘one-off’ property and then selects a contractor to complete all the construction work.
Kit home: a household selects a type of home (and may organise the foundations) and engages the kit home company to provide and erect the property to completion.
Independent community collaboration: a group of households acquires a site, divides it into plots, then each household undertakes the design and construction of their home.
Supported community self-build group: a body like the CSBA (below) or a local community-led trust supports a group of households to build homes together.
Developer-led home: A developer with a site and a prearranged design erects the building for a household to customise or finish aspects of the dwelling and interiors.
Developer-led group custom-build: A developer builds homes for a group, either customised to completion, or for the households to complete, singly or together.
In some cases, the generic term ‘self-build’ is used as shorthand for a variety of the activities listed above and may also be applied to work undertaken to renovate existing properties, either by an individual or by a group. Firms and contractors supplying ‘custom-build’ services have felt, however, that their identity and role may not have sufficient presence in such a shorthand use, or reflect how the ‘DNA’ of the term custom-build reflects the routine experience of households looking to customise established designs or properties to their own needs. In 2014, therefore, the national promotional and support body changed its name from the ‘National Self Build Association’ to the ‘National Custom & Self Build Association’ – NaCSBA.
Recent context (self-build and custom-build)
The annual UK output of the self-build/custom-build sector has been calculated to be in the region of 8–10%. This is not an insignificant number – effectively it’s about the same number of homes as are built by any one of the UK’s largest volume housebuilders. But precise figures are notoriously difficult to compile, and there is little data that separates figures out for the individual countries in the UK.
The NaCSBA has a target to facilitate the doubling of the overall national rate to 16% in the next few years, while market reports estimate a 41% growth in value of the sector by 2020.1
Government endorsement of such ambition gave support for a National ‘Self Build Action Plan’ produced in 2011 by the (then) National Self Build Association and other stakeholders to promote ways for self-build housing to become a ‘more mainstream housing option’ and increase its yearly outputs. Continual lobbying of the issues both inside and outside of Parliament, including by a very supportive All Party Parliamentary Group (now termed the All Party Parliamentary Group on Self-Build, Custom and Community Housebuilding and Placemaking) subsequently laid the ground for the Self-Build and Custom Housebuilding Act 2015 and regulations on local authorities to establish Self Build Registers and identify land available to meet local self-build and custom-build aspirations. All authorities now have a ‘register’ (of some kind or the other) and record ‘demand’ for households wishing to build individually or in groups, but little formal practice is yet to emerge on how authorities are bringing actual land into the use of those households whose demand is now on record.
Informal evidence of self-build opportunities outside of England suggests that self-building still has routine appeal as a chosen activity in the rural regions of Ireland, Wales and Scotland (the writer recalls an estate agent’s window in Aberdeenshire during 2013 that was completely covered in self-build plots offered for sale), although the Scottish Government has recognised new entrants to such a market may need assistance in some locations. A two-year pilot self-build loan fund took effect from 2016 in the Highland Council area, and some useful case studies have been compiled by the Highlands Small Communities Housing Trust.2
Since 2017, a Right to Build Expert Task Force has been operating with support from the Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local Government ‘to help local authorities, community bodies and other organisations across the UK deliver large affordable custom and self-build housing projects’. It has received funds from the Nationwide Foundation and has established a Board that includes input from World Habitat, the National Housing Federation, Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors and the Royal Town Planning Institute.
Examples (self-build and custom-build)
Examples of completed projects demonstrate the breadth of homes that can feature under the self-build/custom-build ‘banner’.
Self-build home: see the annual examples of award winners in a variety of ‘categories’ listed from Build It magazine (https://builditawards.co.uk/); the ‘Field of Dreams’ at Findhorn (www.ecovillagefindhorn.com).
Contractor-built home: the myriad of different projects shown on Channel 4’s Grand Designs programme(www.channel4.com/programmes/grand-designs); units that are being erected on the Graven Hill development at Bicester (https://gravenhill.co.uk).
Kit home: there is an abundance of kit suppliers operating in the UK and across Europe, including Carpenter Oak (http://carpenteroak.com); Potton Self Build Homes (www.potton.co.uk); Huf-Haus UK (www.huf-haus.com/uk/the-huf-house).
Independent community collaboration: the most accomplished recent example is at Ashley Vale, Bristol (www.selfbuildportal.org.uk/ashley-vale).
Supported community self-build group: the CSBA’s recent projects, including those with ex-service personnel (www.communityselfbuildagency.org.uk/); St Minver Community Land Trust in Cornwall (www.the-self-build-guide.co.uk/st-minver-community-land-trust.html).
Developer-built ‘one-off home’: see the database that is continually being updated by NaCSBA (https://selfbuildportal.org.uk/); Graven Hill, Bicester.
Developer-led group project: K1 Cambridge Cohousing (www.cambridge-k1.co.uk); Urban Splash (www.urbansplash.co.uk/residential/new-islington).
Policy implications for self-build/custom-build projects
•Most self-build and custom-build projects in the UK are currently undertaken by households that already have access to some financial resources (which may principally be in the equity of the home they already inhabit). It would be a huge advance for households currently faced with rising housing costs fast outstripping their incomes (many currently forced to use the private rental sector) if they could be assisted to redirect the use of their incomes into affordable self-build initiatives.
•The number of ‘group’ schemes taking place is still less than projects for one-off buildings. There remains a crucial need to develop the skills of those wishing to build or organise collaboratively, along with the skills of any ‘enabling’ supporters to help schemes steer their own course. Self-build or custom-build construction may, of course, be a design and construction route adopted by other kinds of group projects, like a cohousing or community land trust scheme.
•The portrayal of the ‘custom-build’ concept as essentially a relationship with a housing or property ‘developer’ (evident in the terminology of the 2017 Housing White Paper) may reinforce an assumption that a ‘developer’ must be engaged in such activity. (For example, a household could engage a contractor (i.e. not a ‘developer’) to undertake some first stages of construction that the household will complete.) It is possible that the mainstream ‘development sector’ could use the political interest in ‘custom-build’ possibilities as another opportunity to massage the public perception of its business models. If the end purchasers in custom-build schemes are not able to benefit from some of the savings regularly achieved by other self-build projects, then this may prove a lost opportunity to build new property at reduced costs.
Key organisations and information (self-build and custom-build)
•The National Custom & Self Build Association (NaCSBA; www.nacsba.org.uk) is the ‘voice of the custom and self-build sector’ set up to raise the awareness of the self-build and custom-build sector; to collate and communicate best practice of the sector; and to lobby government, landowners and finance providers to help increase annual contributions by the self-build and custom-build sector to the number of homes built.
•The NaCSBA has established the Right to Build Toolkit (http://righttobuildtoolkit.org.uk) as a website providing practical guidance and information for councils, housing associations, community organisations and builders/developers that want to facilitate custom and self-build projects across the UK. It explains some of the build models supported and enabled by local councils and the private sector – those aimed towards individuals and those geared towards group projects – and provides other guidance in the form of Briefing Notes.
•The Self Build Portal (www.selfbuildportal.org.uk) is an information portal established by NaCSBA, and endorsed by government departments, to provide advice and details on all matters pertaining to custom-build and self-build development. It carries information on plots, suppliers, events, case studies and other news on national and local policy developments.
•The Right to Build Task Force (https://righttobuildtoolkit.org.uk/right-to-build-task-force/#) - is an independent expert task force launched, with endorsement from the government to facilitate delivery of affordable custom-build and self-build schemes. It plans to work with at least 80 local authorities, community bodies and partners, and the idea is that others can benefit through regional events and case studies on the Right to Build Portal.
•The National Self Build & Renovation Centre in Swindon (www.nsbrc.co.uk) is the UK’s main permanent venue designed to meet the needs of anyone looking to undertake a self-build, renovation or home improvement project. It has full-size exhibition houses to visit, as well as educational areas featuring an array of displays covering everything from groundworks and foundations, to building systems and roof types, and provides advice for visitors, as well as offering services and products to aid each step of a building project.
•The Community Self Build Agency (CSBA; www.communityselfbuildagency.org.uk) is a charity whose aim is to help people in housing need to build their own homes. It facilitates projects for men and women from all backgrounds to benefit individually and collectively from being a member of a self-build housing group, and thereby to acquire a range of skills and experience. The Agency is particularly keen for those with limited incomes or who are unemployed to participate in building schemes. Key support has been provided in recent years to a number of schemes where the training and construction work has been targeted towards assisting people leaving the armed forces.
•The Walter Segal Trust (www.segalselfbuild.co.uk/home.html) was originally set up to promote the Segal technique of simplified timber-frame housebuilding, and its applicability for households with limited or zero previous building experience, working with a variety of group and individual self-build projects to promote timber-frame techniques and build ecologically sound dwellings. Nowadays the trust is almost solely a repository of details about those first Segal buildings that still attract visitors from far afield. There is an email address for enquiries.
•The Planning Portal (www.planningportal.co.uk/info/200130/common_projects/49/self_build_homes) is a national website for planning and building regulations information, with step-by-step information on the self-build process.
•The Self Build Guide (www.the-self-build-guide.co.uk) is a website with information and hands-on experience from other self-builders, plus pointers towards products, services and suppliers.
The growth of services geared towards households creating their own self-build or custom-build home remains evident in the prevalence of the ‘Self Build’ and ‘Grand Design’ roadshows and exhibitions around the country. Information can regularly be obtained from the following:
•National Self Build and Renovation Show (http://national.homebuildingshow.co.uk).
•Futurebuild (www.futurebuild.co.uk/about; NB – this is the successor of Ecobuild).
•Grand Designs Live (www.granddesignslive.com).
•in the pages of key magazines: Self Build & Design (https://pocketmags.com/selfbuild-and-design-magazine); Grand Designs (www.granddesigns.magazine.co.uk); Build It (www.self-build.co.uk); Homebuilding and Renovating (www.homebuilding.co.uk).
Further reading
AMA Research (2016), ‘Self-Build Housing Market Report: UK 2016–2020 Analysis’, www.amaresearch.co.uk.
Benson, M. (2014), ‘Creating a Nation of Selfbuilders: Interim Project Report’,
Department of Sociology, Goldsmiths University, London.
Borer, P. & Harris, C. (1998), Out of the Woods: Ecological Designs for Timber Frame Self Build, Centre for Alternative Technology Publications, Machynlleth, Wales.
Brindley, M. (2017), The Housebuilders Bible, Edition 12, Ovolo Publications, Milton Keynes, UK.
Broome, J. (2007/8), The Green Self Build Book, Green Books, Totnes, Devon, UK.
Community Self Build Agency (1994), Building Lives by Building Homes, CSBA, Bristol, UK.
Highlands Small Communities Housing Trust (2016), ‘Highland Self Build Loan Fund (HSBLF) Fact Sheet’, selfbuild@hscht.co.uk.
Matthews, R. (2002), All About Selfbuild: A Comprehensive Guide to Building Your Own Unique Home, Blackberry Books, Godshill, Isle of Wight, UK.
National Custom & Self Build Association (2011), ‘An Action Plan to Promote the Growth of Self-build Housing’, Swindon, UK.
Ospina, J. (1994), Self-Build for Rent: Choice, High Standards and Affordability, Co-operative Housing in South-East London, London.
Scottish Government (2016), Self and Custom Build Housing Pilot Challenge Fund Prospectus, Scottish Government, Edinburgh, Scotland.
Three Dragons (2016), ‘Research Paper: Self Build and Custom Build Housing’, http://three-dragons.co.uk.
Wilson, W. (ed) (2017), ‘Self-Build and Custom-Build Housing (England)’, UK Parliament Briefing Paper No.06784, House of Commons Library, London.
Wilson, W. & Heath, S. (eds) (2014), ‘Self-Build and the Custom Build Housing Sector’, UK Parliament, Briefing Paper No. 06784, House of Commons Library, London.
2.2 Co-operatives, ‘mutuals’ and tenant management bodies
The ‘co-operative’ ethos has been hugely influential in the history of political change in the UK and has been a core determinant for shaping egalitarian ways that people and organisations might operate together. It has been crucial in creating property that is owned and/or controlled by a democratic membership and engagement of all the resident households, including where tenants and leaseholders are collectively responsible for managing local homes.
Clarification of terms
•A co-operative is ‘an autonomous association of persons united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social, and cultural needs and aspirations through a jointly-owned and democratically controlled enterprise’ (International Cooperative Alliance).
•A housing co-operative is ‘a body that owns and manages its homes in a completely democratic manner’, usually identified by two common factors:
-a membership where those who live in the homes are required or are encouraged to become members – in some cases alongside other local community members;
-that the community membership democratically controls the housing organisation in some way through general meetings of the organisation (Confederation of Co-operative Housing).
•Primary co-ops are individual and autonomous co-operative organisations controlled by their internal membership bodies.
•Secondary co-ops are bodies established by active collaboration between primary co-operatives (at times in tandem with other supporters, such as local housing associations) to promote, service and sustain the operations of housing co-operatives through advisory, training, management and development services.
•A Tenant Management Organisation is ‘a means by which council or housing association tenants and leaseholders can collectively take on responsibility for managing the homes they live in’ and manage other associated neighbourhood services. (National Federation of Tenant Management Organisations).
•Arms-length Management Organisations (ALMOs) are housing management bodies established to give tenants more influence in how local authority housing estates are managed (National Federation of Arms-Length Management Organisations).
•‘Mutual’ bodies – ‘fully mutual’ co-operatives are bodies where only tenants or prospective tenants can be members and control its affairs (Radical Routes).
•The Community Gateway model is for ‘tenant-controlled membership-owned organisations, operating democratically on a large scale’, designed for council housing stock transfer that allows tenants to take greater control over their homes and neighbourhoods communities (Community Gateway Association).
•Model rules are governing documents set out in the form of ‘template documents’ that can be used by new organisations to be established on the appropriate legal footing (Co-operatives UK).
Key appeal (co-ops and TMOs)
The percentage of co-operative housing that exists in the UK is about 0.6% of the housing stock – that is, just under 10,000 co-operatively owned and managed homes (this could be contrasted with around 1,600,000 managed by the housing association sector). The attraction of ‘co-operative’ housing is the transparent way the co-operative body holds the title to all property and dwellings used by its members. The maintenance and repair of properties is undertaken with a focus on maintaining the homes to excellent standards, not to make a financial profit. Property is a common asset for all members, provided through rental agreements and tenures, and not open for purchase by any individuals.
Co-operatives are incorporated as bodies that usually require their tenant members to purchase a nominal share – invariably for £1. These are not, however, tradable for a monetary figure (future sale will only be a redemption back to the co-op body), and even where a co-operative’s rules may permit members to have more than one share, a co-op’s core principle for governance will be that of ‘one member, one vote’.
The long-established Co-operative Principles, as defined and revised by resolution of the Centennial Congress of the International Co-operative Alliance in September 1995, are based on the values of self-help, self-responsibility, democracy, equality, equity and solidarity. These are consciously rooted in values of honesty, openness, social responsibility and caring for others, and are traditionally set out within the following guidelines on how co-ops should operate:
1Voluntary and open membership (open to all persons willing to accept the responsibilities of membership).
2Democratic member control (members actively participate in setting policies and making decisions).
3Member economic participation (contributing equitably to the democratic control of the co-op’s capital).
4Autonomy and independence (as organisations set up to be controlled by their members).
5Education, training and information (for co-op members, elected representatives, managers and employees).
6Co-operation among co-operatives (working together through local, national, regional and international structures).
7Concern for community (working for the sustainable development of their local communities).
Recent context (co-ops and TMOs)
The evident appeal of co-operative and other tenant management arrangements lies in the direct control over the stock that is available to their members, and in controlling the terms on which accommodation is provided. Tenancies established years ago under co-op agreement and development remain amongst the lowest-cost tenancies in the UK’s housing sector.
Where the historic formal incorporation of housing co-operatives used to be as an industrial and provident society, registered with the Registrar of Friendly Societies, modern registration is operated through the Financial Conduct Authority (FCA) under the requirements of the Co-operative and Community Benefit Societies Act 2014. New bodies can register either as a ‘co-operative’ (principally for the benefit of its members) or as a ‘community benefit society’ (run primarily for the benefit of the community at large but functioning along classic co-operative lines).3
