Читать книгу Lightships and Lighthouses - Frederick Arthur Ambrose Talbot - Страница 7

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Notwithstanding the wonderful ingenuity that is displayed in the concentration of light into powerful beams, these all count for nothing when fog settles upon the sea. The ray of 1,000,000 candle-power is almost as futile then as the glimmer from a tallow dip.

Fog is the peril of the sea which the mariner dreads more than any other. The blanket of mist, descending upon the water, not only shuts everything from sight, but deadens every sound as well. The sea is absolutely calm, so that no intimation of danger ahead is conveyed by the breaking of the waves upon rock, shoal, sandbank, or iron-bound coast.

It is in times of fog that the navigator must be given the greatest protection. As this is impossible to accomplish visually, appeal must be made to his ear. In the early days of lighthouse engineering the methods of conveying audible warning were very crude. The discharge of a gun was the most popular, but it was neither serviceable nor reliable, and was made upon somewhat haphazard lines. Thus, in the case of a dangerous headland on the North American coast, which the Boston steamer had to round on its journey, the keepers mounted guard at the probable time of the vessel’s arrival off this point. They listened eagerly for the steamer’s whistle, and when it came screaming over the water they began hurriedly firing a carronade, keeping up the blank-cartridge bombardment until another shriek told them that those on the vessel had heard their signals. Sometimes the whistle was heard from a distance of six miles; at others from not more than two miles away. It depended upon circumstances. Obviously, such a primitive system was attended with considerable danger, as an accident was liable to happen to the men in their feverish haste to load and discharge the gun, while the plight of the boat was far from being enviable at times.

By permission of Messrs. Chance Bros. & Co., Ltd.

A MODERN LIGHTHOUSE SIREN PLANT.

Showing gas engines and air-compressors in duplicate, with siren at side.

In the early days every lighthouse tower was provided with a heavy bell. Indeed, the ponderous dome of metal projecting from the lantern gallery was considered indispensable. The bell varied in weight from 1,200 to 2,240 pounds, was fitted with a massive clapper, and when struck emitted a deep musical note. In order to enable the seafarer to gain some idea of his whereabouts, the fog-signals were given a sound-characteristic somewhat upon the lines of those in connection with the light. Thus, one lighthouse would give one stroke every ten seconds; another would give two strokes in quick succession, followed by a long silence, and so on. This system suffers from the severe handicap that the sound does not travel very far during foggy weather.

Another ingenious engineer recommended the utilization of the locomotive whistle, giving a high-toned, ear-piercing shriek, but the same objection as attended the use of the bell prevailed: the sound could not be heard more than a short distance away. The British lighthouse authorities submitted the idea to a series of searching investigations to ascertain its possibilities, but eventually were compelled to conclude that it was not superior to, if as good as, the other systems then in vogue. The United States authorities, as a result of their independent experiments, expressed a similar opinion; but in Canada practical application gave this whistle a favourable verdict.

Rockets also have been adopted, and are highly successful. Indeed, this method of conveying audible warning prevails still in many countries. The practicability of such a means of throwing sound over a wide area was advanced by Sir Richard Collinson, when Deputy-Master of Trinity House, and his idea comprised the insertion of a gun-cotton charge, timed to explode at a given height, in the head of the rocket. The height could be varied up to about 1,000 feet, and the weight of the charge fluctuated according to requirements. The rocket system was tested very severely, and in some instances the report was heard as many as twenty-five miles away. It received the approbation of Professor Tyndall, and, although superior methods of signalling have been devised since, there remain one or two lighthouse stations where it is considered to be the most satisfactory fog-signalling device, notably the station on the island of Heligoland, where the rocket is hurled into the air to explode at a height of nearly 700 feet.

In many lighthouses the detonation of gun-cotton constitutes the means of conveying warning to passing vessels, but is accomplished in a different manner. The charge, instead of being sent into the air to be exploded, is attached to a special device which is supported upon a simple frame at a point above the lantern, so that no damage may be inflicted upon the glass of the latter from the concussion. The apparatus is fitted with a safety device which prevents premature explosion, so that the keeper is preserved from personal injury, and, unless culpable negligence is manifested, the charge cannot be ignited until it has been raised to its designed position. The report is of great volume, and as a rule can be heard a considerable distance; but in this, as in all other cases, the atmosphere plays many strange tricks. Still, it has not been superseded yet for isolated sea-rock lighthouses, such as the Eddystone, Skerryvore, and Bell Rock, where there is lack of adequate space for the installation of any other equally efficient fog-signalling facilities.

Photo, Paul, Penzance.

THE SIRENS OF THE LIZARD.

Owing to the importance of the Lizard Station and the fact that the coast often is obscured by fog, a powerful fog-signalling station is imperative.

In the early seventies an American investigator, Mr. C. L. Daboll, contrived an entirely new system, which developed into the foundation of one of the most successful fog-signalling devices for lighthouses which has been discovered—the siren. The Daboll invention was a huge trumpet, recalling a mammoth phonograph horn. It was 17 feet in length, and its mouth was 38 inches in diameter. In the lower end of this trumpet—the throat—was placed a tongue of steel measuring 10 inches in length and secured at one end to form a reed. It was blown by air compressed in a reservoir to the desired degree, and then permitted to escape through the trumpet. The mad rush of the expanding air through the constricted passage set the reed vibrating violently, causing the emission of a penetrating, discordant bellow. When Daboll commenced his experiments, he suffered from the lack of a suitable mechanical means for compressing the air, and made shift with a donkey for this purpose until the hot-air engine was improved, when the latter was substituted.

Trinity House adopted the idea and found it serviceable; but the Canadian authorities, after four years’ experiment, dissented from this view, remarking that the trumpet was expensive to maintain, unreliable in working, and liable to break down when most urgently needed. In fact, they characterized the Daboll trumpets which they had installed as “sources of danger instead of aids to navigation.”

From the trumpet to the siren was not a very big step. The history of the latter’s invention is somewhat obscure, but it was brought before the United States Government in a primitive form. The American engineers, recognizing its latent possibilities, took it up, and endeavoured to improve it to such a degree as to render it suitable for lighthouse work. Their efforts were only partially successful. The solution of the many difficulties attending its perfection was effected in Great Britain by Professor Frederick Hale Holmes, whose magneto-electric machine brought electricity within reach of the lighthouse as an illuminant, and it was due to the efforts of this scientist that the siren became one of the most efficient sound-producing instruments which have been discovered for this class of work.

The reason that made Professor Holmes bring his energies and knowledge to bear upon this subject was somewhat curious. The siren in its first form made its way from the United States to Great Britain. The British Admiralty realized the power and penetration of its sound, and forthwith adopted it in the navy, operating it by steam instead of by air. At this there arose a great outcry from the mercantile marine. Captains argued that the similarity of the signals confused and often misled them, as they could not tell in the fog whether the sound proceeded from a warship or a lighthouse. The Board of Trade was forced to intervene, but, as it had no jurisdiction over the Admiralty, it sought to extricate itself from an awkward situation by inviting Professor Holmes to perfect a siren which would emit a distinctive sound. His efforts were crowned with complete success.

Fig. 15.—The Fixed (A) and Revolving (B) Parts of the Siren.

Professor Holmes exhibited his wonderful device at the Paris Exhibition of 1867. He installed it in working order, and the visitors displayed an anxiety to hear it. It was brought into action, and those around never forgot the experience. It was the most diabolical ear-splitting noise which had been heard, and, apprehensive that serious results might arise from its demonstration when the buildings were thronged with sight-seers, the authorities refused to permit it to be sounded again. The humorous illustrated papers did not suffer such a golden opportunity to escape. Grotesque and laughable cartoons appeared depicting the curious effects produced by the blast of the instrument, one showing the various statues being frightened off their pedestals proving exceptionally popular.

The siren in its simplest form is an enlarged edition of the “Deviline” toy whistle. There is a Daboll trumpet with a small throat, in which is placed horizontally, not a reed, but a metal disc, so as to fill the whole circular space of the throat. The sheet of metal is pierced with a number of radial slits. Behind this disc is a second plate of a similar character, and likewise pierced with radial slits of the same size, shape and number; but whereas the first disc is fixed, the second is mounted on a spindle. The free disc rotates at high speed, so that the twelve jets of air which are driven through the throat are interrupted intermittently by the blanks of the revolving disc coming over the openings in the fixed disc, while when the two slits are in line the air has a free passage. If the revolving disc completes 3,000 revolutions per minute, and there are twelve slits in the discs, then a total of 36,000 vibrations per minute is produced while the instrument is in operation. The speed of the revolving disc, as well as the number and size of the openings, varies according to the size and class of the siren; but in any case an intensely powerful, dense and penetrating musical tone is emitted, which can be heard a considerable distance away. The blast of a high-powered large siren has been heard at a distance of twenty to thirty miles in clear weather, though of course in thick weather its range is reduced.

While Professor Holmes was experimenting with this device, another investigator, Mr. Slight, of Trinity House, was wrestling with the same problem. Indeed, he may be described as the inventor of the modern siren. Although he effected only an apparently slight modification, it was the touch which rendered the instrument perfect, while it also removed the possibility of a breakdown at a critical moment, as he rendered the moving part freer in its working and eliminated the severe strains to which it was subjected. The improvement was appreciated by Professor Holmes, who adopted it immediately.

While these indefatigable efforts were in progress, ingenious attempts were made to press Nature herself into operation. As is well known, there are many “blowing-holes” distributed throughout the world, where the water by erosion has produced a long, narrow cavern in the base of a rock, with a constricted outlet into the outer air. The waves, rushing into the cave, compress the air within, which, in its escape at high velocity through the small vent, produces a bellowing sound. It was this curious phenomenon which gave the Wolf Rock its name. General Hartmann Bache, of the United States Engineers, attempted in 1858 to make use of a blowing-hole on one of the Farallon Isles, lying forty miles off the entrance to San Francisco Bay. A chimney was built with bricks above the orifice, through which the air compressed by the waves below made its escape, and on top of this shaft a locomotive whistle was placed. The first effort was a dead failure, because the force of the rush of air was so great that it carried away the chimney; but in the second attempt success was achieved, and an excellent automatic whistle blared out night and day almost continuously and was audible for some distance out to sea. The only drawback was that in foggy weather, when the most intense sound was required, the signal was dumb owing to the smoothness of the water. This novel signal was maintained for some time and then was superseded by a powerful siren.

One of the most interesting fog-signalling installations in service is that on the bald formidable hump of rock lying in the estuary of the Clyde, known as Ailsa Craig. For years this rock constituted a terrible menace to the crowded shipping of this important marine thoroughfare, and its victims were numerous. While the Commissioners of Northern Lighthouses mitigated its terrors as far as possible by the provision of a powerful light, they recognized the fact that a visual warning did not meet the situation completely. But the installation of a fog-signal was a somewhat peculiar problem, owing to the configuration of the rock. A single station would not meet requirements, because it was necessary to throw the warning from both sides of the obstruction. The provision of two sound-stations would have been an expensive matter, even if it had been feasible, which it was not, owing to the precipitous nature of the cliffs.

An ingenious solution was advanced by Mr. Charles Ingrey, C.E. He proposed to erect a central power-station and to control the sounding of two sirens, placed on opposite sides of the island, therefrom, the compressed air being led through underground piping. The plans were submitted to Messrs. Stevenson, the engineers to the Northern Lighthouse Board, who, after examining the proposal thoroughly, gave it their approval. But when it came to obtaining the sanction for the requisite expenditure from the Board of Trade, that august body, despite the fact that the project had been investigated and had received the approbation of the engineers to the Northern Lighthouse Commissioners, declined to permit public money to be expended upon an untried scheme. Such is the way in which pioneering effort and ingenuity are stifled by Government departments.

THE ACETYLENE FOG-GUN.

The latest ingenious device for giving both audible and visual warning automatically.

Many another engineer would have abandoned the project after such a rebuff, but Mr. Ingrey without any delay laid down a complete installation upon the lines he contemplated on the island of Pladda, where a Holmes fog-horn was in service. With the aid of a workman whom he took from Glasgow, the light-keepers and some farm labourers, this trial installation was completed, the piping being carried round the island from the air-compressing plant to the fog-signal. The work occupied about a fortnight, and then, everything being ready to convince the sceptical Board of Trade, the inspecting engineers were treated to a comprehensive and conclusive demonstration. They were satisfied with what they saw, appreciated the reliability of the idea and gave the requisite sanction. Forthwith the Ailsa Craig Island installation was put in hand and duly completed.

This plant possesses many ingenious features. As the light is derived from gas distilled from crude oil, a small gas-making plant is installed on the island, and this is used also for driving a battery of five eight-horse-power gas-engines—four are used at a time, the fifth being in reserve—to supply the thirty-horse-power demanded to operate the fog-signal. The energy thus developed drives two sets of powerful air-compressors, the four cylinders of which have a bore of 10 inches by a stroke of 20 inches, the air being compressed to 80 pounds per square inch and stored in two large air-receivers which hold 194 cubic feet. From this reservoir pipes buried in a trench excavated from the solid rock extend to the two trumpets, placed on the north and south sides of the island respectively. The length of piping on the north side is 3,400 feet, and on the south side 2,500 feet. At places where the pipe makes a dip, owing to the configuration of the rock, facilities are provided to draw off any water which may collect. Extreme care had to be displayed in connecting the lengths of piping, so that there might be no leakage, in which event, of course, the pressure of the air would drop and thereby incapacitate the signal.

THE RATTRAY HEAD LIGHTHOUSE.

A very exposed Scottish rock tower. It is unique because a full-powered siren fog-signal is installed therein.

Each signal is mounted in a domed house built of concrete, the mouth of the trumpet extending from the crown of the roof. Within the house is an air-receiver 9 feet in height by 4½ feet in diameter, of about 140 cubic feet capacity, which receives the compressed air transmitted through the piping from the compressing-station. It also contains the automatic apparatus whereby the signal is brought into action at the stipulated intervals, so as to produce the requisite sound characteristic. This is a self-winding clockwork mechanism which admits and cuts off the supply of air to the trumpets, its chief feature being that the clock is wound up by the compressed air itself, so that it is entirely free from human control. However, as a breakdown even with the best-designed and most-carefully-tended machinery cannot be circumvented entirely, there is a duplicate electrical mechanism, also automatically controlled from the power-generating station, the electric cables for which are laid in the pipe trenches. This acts as an emergency control.

By courtesy of Messrs. D. and C. Stevenson.

SULE SKERRY LIGHT.

A lonely light of Scotland. The nearest land is the Butt of Lewis, 30 miles distant.

The two signals are not sounded simultaneously; neither are they alike nor of the same tone. The north signal gives a single blast of high tone, lasting five seconds, and then is silent for 175 seconds. On the south side the siren gives a double note, although there are three blasts—viz., high, low, high—corresponding to the letter R of the Morse code. The notes are sounded for two seconds, with similar intervening periods of silence, and silence for 170 seconds between the groups. The complete signal from the two stations is given once in three minutes, the north signal commencing to sound ninety seconds after the south signal has ceased. The high note corresponds to the fourth E in the musical compass, there being 38,400 vibrations per minute; while the low note is tuned to the third D in the musical compass, with 16,800 vibrations per minute. The notes are purposely timed more than an octave apart and made discordant, as thereby the sound is more likely to attract attention and to be readily distinguished.

About eighteen minutes are required to bring the apparatus into operation—that is, to start compressing and to raise the pressure of the air to the requisite degree—but, as fogs descend upon the Clyde with startling suddenness, the signals may be started within five minutes of the fog-alarm. The air-reservoirs are kept charged to the working pressure, the machinery being run once or twice for a short time every week for this purpose and to keep the plant in working order.

Up to this time it had been the practice to place the siren in close proximity to the air-compressing machinery, but the installation at Ailsa Craig proves conclusively that this is not essential to success; also it demonstrates the fact that a number of signals can be operated reliably and effectively from a central station. Indeed, this Scottish plant aroused such widespread interest that the Pulsometer Engineering Company of Reading, who had acquired Professor Holmes’s patents and who carried out the above installation, received several inquiries from abroad with regard to its suitability for similar situations. In one instance the compressed air was to be transmitted for a distance of nearly four miles.

While the siren has been adopted and found adequate by the majority of nations, the Canadian Government has installed a far more powerful instrument upon the River St. Lawrence, as the ordinary siren signals originally established near the mouth of the river, although of great power, were found to be inadequate. The new apparatus, which is known as the “diaphone,” gives an extraordinarily powerful sound. It comprises a cylindrical chamber, in the walls of which are cut a number of parallel slits. Concentrically disposed within the chamber is a cylindrical hollow piston, with similar slits and a flange at one end, the whole being enclosed in an outer casing. Air under pressure is admitted into the outer casing, and drives the piston backwards and forwards with great rapidity. The result is that the air effects its escape through the orifices, when they come into line, in intermittent puffs.

While the broad principle is not unlike that of the conventional siren, the main difference is that in the latter there is a rotary motion, whereas in the diaphone the action is reciprocating. The great advantage of the latter is that all the vibrations are synchronous, owing to the symmetrical disposition of the slits, and consequently the note produced is very pure. The mechanism is so devised that the piston’s motion is controlled to a nicety, and the sound is constant. Experience has proved that the best results are obtained by using air at a pressure of 30 pounds per square inch. The sound thus produced is intensified to a markedly greater degree by means of a resonator properly attuned.

This instrument has displaced the siren among the stations upon the St. Lawrence River. The general type of apparatus has a piston 4½ inches in diameter, and uses 11 pounds of air per second during the sounding of the blast. But at more important stations a far larger and more powerful class of apparatus is used, the diaphone at Cape Race having a piston 8½ inches in diameter and using 27 feet of air per second while sounding. This does not indicate the limit of size, however, since the builders of this terrible noise-producer are experimenting with an apparatus having a piston 14 inches in diameter. The sound issuing from such a huge apparatus would be almost as deafening as the report of a big gun and should succeed in warning a mariner several miles away.

The atmosphere, however, plays many strange pranks with the most powerful sound-producing instruments. To-day, for instance, a fog-signal may be heard at a distance of ten miles; to-morrow it will fail to be audible more than a mile away. This aberration of sound is extraordinary and constitutes one of the unsolved problems of science. Innumerable investigations have been made with the object of finding the cause of this erratic action, but no conclusive explanation has been forthcoming. Another strange trick is that, while a sound may be audible at distances of two and four miles during a fog, it fails to strike the ear at three miles. It is as if the sound struck the water at a range of two miles, bounded high into the air, and again fell upon the water at four miles, giving a second leap to hit the water again farther on, in much the same way as a thin flat stone, when thrown horizontally into the water, will hop, skip, and jump over the surface. This trick renders the task of the lighthouse engineer additionally exasperating and taxes his ingenuity to the utmost, as it appears to baffle completely any attempt towards its elimination.

Recently another ingenious and novel system has been perfected by Messrs. D. and C. Stevenson. This is an acetylene gun which acts automatically. Hitherto an unattended fog-signal—except the bell-buoy tolled by the movement of the waves, which is far from satisfactory, or the whistling buoy, which is operated upon the same lines and is equally ineffective except at very short range—has found little favour. The objections to the bell and whistle buoys are the faintness of the sounds, which may be drowned by the noises produced on the ship herself; while, if the wind is blowing away from the vessel, she may pass within a few feet of the signal, yet outside its range. Thus it will be recognized that the fog-gun serves to fill a very important gap in connection with the warning of seafarers during thick weather.

As is well known, even a small charge of acetylene, when fired, will produce a loud report, and this characteristic of the gas induced Messrs. Stevenson to apply it to a fog-signal. They have developed the automatic acetylene system of lighting to a very high degree around the coasts of Scotland, and there are now more than twenty lights of this class, mostly unattended, in operation, some of which have been established for many years. These lights have proved highly satisfactory. There has never been an accident, a freedom which is due to the fact that Moye’s system is used, wherein the possibilities of mishap are surmounted very effectively. Accordingly, the engineers saw no reason why a similar system should not be adapted to the emission of sound instead of light signals, or, if desired, of both simultaneously. Their experiments have been crowned with complete success, and, as the gun uses no more gas than would be consumed if a flashing light system were used, the cost of operation is very low.

The general features of the acetylene fog-gun may be observed from the illustration (facing p. 64). The acetylene, dissolved in acetone, is contained under pressure in a cylinder, and thence passes through a reducing valve to an annular space, where it is ignited by an electric spark. A trumpet is attached to the firing chamber, so that the sound becomes intensified. If desired, the explosion can be effected at the burner, so that, in addition to a sound-signal, a flashing light is given.

The applications vary according to the circumstances. Suppose there is an unlighted bell-buoy at the bar of a port. Here the procedure is to install a gun and light combined, so that the flash of the explosion may give visual and the report audible warning. Or, should there be a lighted buoy already in position, its effectiveness may be enhanced by adding the gun, the detonation alone being employed for warning purposes. The size of the cylinder containing the dissolved acetylene may be varied, so that renewal need only be carried out once in one, two, or more months, according to conditions. If the increasing traffic around a certain rock demand that the latter should be marked, a combined sound and light apparatus can be installed. It may be that the head of a pier which is accessible only at certain times, or a beacon which can be reached only at rare intervals, may require improved facilities. In this case the gun can be set up and a cable laid to a convenient spot which may be approached at all times by an attendant. Then the latter, by the movement of a switch, can bring the gun instantly into action upon the alarm of fog, and it will keep firing at the set intervals until, the fog lifting, the gun is switched off.

In some cases, where the apparatus is set upon a lonely rock, a submarine cable may be laid between the marked point and the control-station. The cable is not a very costly addition. There are many lights where wages have to be paid merely for a man to bring the fog-signalling bell machinery into action. In such cases a fog-gun can be installed and the annual cost of maintenance decreased enormously, thereby enabling the outlay on the gun to be recouped within a very short time; while the light may be improved by using the flashes, so that the warning can be rendered more distinctive.

The invention is also applicable to lightships, many of which are manned by four men or more at a large cost per annum. In the majority of cases an unattended Stevenson lightship—such as described in another chapter, six of which are in use around the coasts of Scotland, and which give, not only a first-class light, but, by the aid of the fog-signal gun, can be made to give an excellent fog-signal as well—offers a means of reducing the heavy maintenance charges arising in connection with a manned light-vessel. In many instances existing lightships can be converted to the automatic system and completed by the gun. Each case must, of course, be decided upon its merits as regards the time the gun and light are required to work upon a single charge of acetylene, but there are no insuperable obstacles to its utilization.

Of course, in an isolated station lying perhaps some miles off the mainland, it may be necessary to keep the gun going night and day in fog and in clear weather alike. In this case, naturally, the great number of explosions involves considerable expense; but the inventors are carrying out experiments with a view to switching the gun on and off, as required, from a distant point by means of wireless telegraphy, so as to effect a saving in the expenditure of acetylene when there is no need on account of fine weather to keep the gun going. Still, it must not be supposed that the detonations even during clear weather are altogether abortive, inasmuch as a sound-signal at sea, where the atmosphere has a long-distance-carrying capacity as a rule, in conjunction with a light, draws double attention to a danger spot. Under such circumstances the waste of acetylene gas during periods of clear weather is more apparent than real.

The contest against the elements is still being waged, and slowly but surely engineering science is improving its position, and is hopeful of rendering audible signals as completely effective as those of a visual character.