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Daily Life in the Time of Jesus

What is the Aramaic language?

Aramaic was originally the language of the Arameans, a people living in what is today Syria (Gen 25:20). Their language was adopted by others, becoming an international diplomatic language (2 Kings 18:26) and eventually the language of the Persian Empire. Aramaic became the common language of Jews living in Palestine while they were under Persian rule (much as Spanish became the common language of most of South America because of its time under Spanish rule). As a result of the conquests of Alexander the Great in the fourth century, Greek became the common language of the eastern Mediterranean world. Yet Aramaic persisted as the native language of rural Galileans, and was the native language of Jesus.

Why were banquets so popular?

Banquets played important social and religious roles at the time of Jesus. They were not only a chance for ordinary people to enjoy ample food and wine, which they otherwise rarely did, but also a form of entertainment in a world that offered few diversions compared to the modern world. Banquets marked special occasions, such as weddings (Matt 22:2; John 2:1–10) or the homecoming of a wayward son (Luke 15:23). Those who were wealthy could feast every day (Luke 16:19). Banquets were also used to celebrate religious feasts, such as Passover (Exod 12:1–28). It was the custom at Greek banquets for diners to recline on their left side on cushions or couches arranged in a U-shape. Servants served the food on low tables inside the U. Jews adopted the custom of reclining during banquets, as John shows in his account of the Last Supper (John 13:12, 23–25). The prophets spoke of God providing a banquet for his people (Isaiah 25:6), and Jesus used a feast as an image for the reign of God (Matt 8:11; 22:1–14; Luke 13:24–29; 14:15–24). Having plenty of good food to eat would have sounded heavenly to Jesus’ listeners.

What was distinctive about Jewish burial practices at the time of Jesus?

Jewish burials took place as soon as possible after death. The corpse was washed and anointed with ointments and perfumes and wrapped in cloth. Ordinary Jews were buried in simple graves dug in the ground; in the Jerusalem area, some wealthier Jews were buried in cave-like tombs carved into the limestone hillsides surrounding the city. These tombs usually contained several chambers and served entire families for several generations. Burials in family tombs were usually a two-step process. First, the corpse lay on a shelf in the tomb for about a year. Then, after the flesh had decayed away, the bones were collected and placed in a pit containing the bones of the person’s ancestors. Or, in Jerusalem at the time of Jesus, bones were often placed instead in an ossuary, a lidded box carved from limestone; typically, such boxes were about twenty-four by eighteen by twelve inches. The box was then set in a recess in the tomb complex. Sometimes the bones of several members of a family were placed in the same box. In 1990, archaeologists excavating a tomb on the southern edge of Jerusalem found a bone box with an Aramaic form of the name “Caiaphas” inscribed on it. Inside were bones identified as those of a man about sixty, an adult woman, a teenage boy, a young child, and two infants. Archaeologists believe that the bones of the man are those of the Caiaphas who was high priest from A.D. 18 to 36 (see John 11:49).

What kind of clothing did people wear?

The two basic items of clothing at the time of Jesus were the tunic and the cloak (see Luke 6:29; Acts 9:39). The tunic was an inner garment often made by folding a rectangle of cloth, sometimes linen, over on itself and stitching the sides, with openings for the head and arms. The cloak, often wool, was an outer garment, perhaps a loose-fitting robe or a rectangular cloth that one draped around oneself. These garments were worn by both men and women, with only color and decoration distinguishing them. A Jewish man’s cloak would have tassels (Num 15:37–40; Deut 22:12). Belts were used to cinch tunics and cloaks. A head covering could be simply a cloth draped or tied around the head; leather sandals protected the feet. The upper class could afford imported silk and dyes, and their clothing proclaimed their status.

Was crucifixion a fact of life?

Most everyone at the time of Jesus had heard of crucifixions even if they had not witnessed them personally. Crucifixion was an exceedingly cruel form of execution used by a number of ancient peoples. Rome adopted crucifixion as its way of executing slaves, rebels, and lower-class, violent criminals. The Romans crucified many both before and after Jesus, including thousands when Rome put down the Jewish revolt of A.D. 66–70. Crucifixions were done in a variety of ways using different styles of crosses. Common Roman practice was to first scourge the one to be crucified, to increase suffering. Then the condemned was forced to carry a crossbeam to the place of execution, where an upright post would already be in place. Roman crucifixions were done at public sites, such as along a busy road, in order to make them a public display. The one to be crucified was stripped of his clothing, and his arms were tied or nailed to the crossbeam. The crossbeam was then lifted up and fixed to the upright beam at a notch cut either in its top or in its side. Usually the person’s feet were nailed or tied to the upright beam. Romans often posted a sign indicating the crime for which the person was being crucified. Despite their suffering, those who were crucified could survive for several days, tormented by pain, thirst, insects, and the shame of dying naked before others. Death usually resulted from shock or suffocation when chest muscles gave out. A body was sometimes left on the cross until it disintegrated, eaten by rats and vultures. Crucifixion was designed to be as painful and degrading a death as possible. Rome used crucifixion not merely as a punishment but also as a warning of what would happen to those who challenged Roman authority.

What did people eat?

Bread was the basic food of ordinary people in Palestine at the time of Jesus and provided a substantial part of their daily calorie intake. Most families baked their own bread daily in an outdoor oven and ate bread at every meal. Bread was usually made from wheat; barley bread was cheaper but less desirable. Bread made up so much of the diet that the word for bread could be used to refer to food in general. Grain was also eaten parched (“roasted” — Ruth 2:14). Legumes such as beans and lentils, and vegetables such as cucumbers and onions rounded out meals, along with fruits such as grapes, figs, dates, and pomegranates, among others. Grapes could be processed into wine or raisins. Olives were eaten whole or crushed for oil, which was used in cooking and dipping. Goats and sheep provided milk, often processed into yogurt and cheese. Fish from the Sea of Galilee and the Mediterranean were consumed fresh (John 21:9–10), or dried, salted, or pickled to preserve them, and were eaten whole or as a condiment for bread. Herbs, spices, and salt added taste to even simple meals. Ordinary people ate meat on special occasions, such as feasts (Luke 15:23); the extent to which meat was eaten more often is debated today. Meals were eaten with the fingers, with pieces of bread used as edible spoons to scoop up porridges and soak up sauces (Ruth 2:14; John 13:26), as is still the custom in some Middle Eastern cultures today. Members of the upper class ate much better than ordinary people: imported wines graced their tables, along with ample meat.

How common was farming?

Farmers made up most of the population of rural Galilee. Unlike American farmers, who tend to live in isolated houses on their farms, Galilean farmers lived together in small towns and villages and went out to work their fields. They grew grain crops, including wheat and barley; fruits, such as grapes, olives, and figs; and vegetables, such as lentils, beans, peas, and cucumbers. Galilee contained some prime farmland in its valleys, including the broad valleys north and south of Nazareth. Much of the prime land had been expropriated by rulers, such as Herod Antipas at the time of Jesus, who either had it managed for them or entrusted it to their influential supporters. Some farmers worked as tenant farmers or day laborers on these estates. Most farmers owned their own plots of land, which were often small and were sometimes on a rocky hillside that had to be terraced to support crops. Farmers were subject to tithes and taxes on their crops, which by some estimates added up to 40 percent of their harvests. These farmers were better off than day laborers, but a few bad harvests could lead to indebtedness and loss of land.

How was fishing done on the Sea of Galilee?

In the first century, the Sea of Galilee was ringed with towns with harbors and was commercially fished, as it has been up to the present day. Commercial fishing, rather than sport fishing, is reflected in the Gospels. There were about eighteen species of fish in the Sea of Galilee, with three categories making up the bulk of commercial catches: sardines, carp, and tilapia. Tilapia feed on plankton and must be caught with nets, not with hooks and bait. Tilapia weigh up to four pounds and swim in schools around the northern end of the Sea of Galilee during wintertime; the great nettings of fish reported in the Gospels were likely catches of tilapia. Fishermen used various forms of nets, including circular nets that were cast by hand and dragnets that were deployed from boats. Remains of a first-century fishing boat were discovered in 1986 buried in the mud near the shore of the Sea of Galilee at Ginnosar (ancient Gennesaret), an area Jesus visited (Matt 14:34; Mark 6:53). This boat, twenty-six and a half feet long, seven and a half feet wide, and four and a half feet deep, was apparently typical of the fishing boats mentioned in the Gospels. It had a rounded stern and may have had decks fore and aft. It would have had a small square sail and a crew of four rowers and a rudder man. It could have carried an additional ten to twelve passengers when it was not transporting nets and fish.

How had Greek language and culture made inroads in Palestine?

Alexander the Great (ruled 336–323 B.C.) of Macedonia (northern Greece) conquered the eastern Mediterranean world. Thereafter, the Greek language became the common international language and the everyday language of many of the lands he conquered. Many Jews living outside Palestine adopted Greek; Jews living in Egypt translated the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek in the third and second centuries B.C. The New Testament was written in Greek as the most commonly understood language. Even Paul’s letter to Rome was written in Greek, not Latin. The early Church, being overwhelmingly Greek-speaking, used the Greek translation of the Old Testament as its Scripture. Greek culture, including philosophy, architectural styles, and enjoyment of the theater, had Jewish adherents in some of the larger cities of Palestine, including Jerusalem, but does not seem to have penetrated the small villages and rural areas of Galilee.

What is the Hebrew language?

Hebrew was the vernacular language of the Israelite people until after the exile; most of the Old Testament was written in Hebrew. After the exile Aramaic, a related language, became the most common spoken language of Jews living in Palestine, and small portions of a couple of books of the Old Testament are in Aramaic. At the time of Jesus, many Jews could not read or understand Hebrew, and Aramaic translations of the Scriptures were sometimes used in synagogues in Palestine. The Gospel of John uses the word “Hebrew” to refer to the Aramaic as well as the Hebrew language.

Why was hospitality so valued?

The practice of welcoming guests, including strangers, into one’s home for meals and lodging is common in the Old and New Testaments. Abraham provides an example of generous hospitality when he begs three traveling strangers to accept a snack from him but then serves them a banquet (Gen 18:1–8). Abraham’s nephew Lot pleads with passing strangers to spend the night in his house rather than sleep in the town square (Gen 19:1–3). Job lists hospitality among his upright deeds: “No stranger lodged in the street, / but I opened my door to wayfarers” (Job 31:32). Those who traveled usually had to rely on the hospitality of others. Caravan inns on main routes provided shelter for travelers and animals (Luke 10:34–35), but there were no inns in ordinary towns and villages. Jesus depended on the hospitality of his followers, including Peter (Mark 1:29–34; 2:1) and Martha and Mary (Luke 10:38–42). Jesus included hospitality among his concerns on judgment day: “I was … a stranger and you welcomed me” (Matt 25:35). The practice of hospitality is evident in Acts (Acts 10:21–23; 16:15; 28:7), and the letters of the New Testament hold hospitality in high regard (Rom 12:13; 1 Tim 3:2; 5:10; Titus 1:8; Heb 13:2).

What were houses like?

First-century Palestinian houses ranged from the very small to the truly sumptuous. Ordinary people often lived in one-room houses that usually shared an open courtyard with other one-room houses. Much of life was lived outdoors; cooking was done in the courtyard. Rooms were dark and sometimes windowless and used for sleeping and shelter from the elements. In eastern Galilee (in Capernaum, for example), houses were built of basalt, a dark volcanic stone common in the area. Floors were made of basalt cobblestones; roofs were made of beams overlaid with thatch and clay. In Jericho, a city in the lower Jordan River valley, mud brick was used for the walls of ordinary dwellings. The wealthy elite lived in fine houses with mosaic floors, frescoed (painted plaster) walls, and elegant columns. The remains of several mansions belonging to the wealthy have been excavated in Jerusalem. One of these houses had several stories and more than six thousand square feet under its roof; it probably belonged to a member of a high-priestly family.

Can we throw light on oil lamps?

During much of the Old Testament era, an Israelite oil lamp was a very simple affair, a shallow pottery bowl that had edges turned up to form a channel for a wick. Lamps burned olive oil; wicks were commonly made of flax, which could be grown locally (cotton was imported). Oil lamp design changed late in the Old Testament era, with tops added to minimize spilling. At the time of Jesus, the common single wick oil lamp was rather small and would fit into the palm of one’s hand. It gave off roughly one candle power of light — feeble by modern standards but a welcome light in the darkness of homes with few if any windows (see Luke 15:8). What are called lamps in the parable of the wise and foolish virgins (Matt 25:1–13) were likely torches made of rags wound around sticks and soaked in olive oil, more suitable than oil lamps to light a parade at night.

Was leprosy in biblical times the same disease as leprosy today?

In the Old and New Testaments, the Hebrew and Greek words translated “leprosy” refer to a variety of skin conditions and infections. In the New Testament period, one of these conditions may have been what is called leprosy today (Hansen’s disease). Some of these skin conditions went away in time; some did not. A skin condition that resulted in a certain kind of abnormal appearance made the afflicted person ritually impure, or unclean. Old Testament regulations specified that priests were to determine whether a skin condition was “leprosy”; if it was, the person with the skin disease was excluded from the community as unclean (Lev 13). Priests likewise judged whether a person’s leprosy had gone away, in which case the person underwent purification rituals before rejoining the community (Lev 14). These procedures indicate that what was at stake was ritual purity. Exclusion of the afflicted person from the community prevented the spread of ritual uncleanness; there was little understanding of the nature of diseases or of how they were spread.

What were Jewish marriage practices at the time of Jesus?

The love of wife and husband for each other could be just as heartfelt in ancient as in modern times, and sexual attraction just as passionate (see the Song of Songs). Yet the understanding and practice of marriage in the Old Testament has its differences from marriage in the modern Western world. The primary purpose of marriage was to beget children, specifically sons who could continue the father’s family name and inherit the father’s family lands. Hence shame befell a barren wife, however much her husband might love her (1 Sam 1:1–8), since infertility was always attributed to the woman, never to the man. If a husband died without leaving a son, his brother was to marry his widow and beget an heir for him (Deut 25:5–6). A man could have more than one wife (Deut 21:15–17), but a wife could not have more than one husband, for that would create family heritage tangles. Inheritance passed to sons, with a double share to the oldest (Deut 21:17). Only by exception could daughters inherit (Num 27:8), and then with restrictions to keep the inheritance within the father’s clan (Num 36:6–9). Marriages were arrangements between families as well as between husband and wife. Particularly when those getting married were young — possibly as early as puberty for a girl but a few years older for a boy — their fathers arranged their betrothal, sometimes drawing up a contract (see Tobit 7:13). A betrothed woman might continue to live with her family for a period of time (Matt 1:18). There was no wedding ceremony as such, but a party to celebrate the wife moving into the home of her husband (Matt 22:2–10; 25:1–13; Mark 2:19; John 2:1–10).

What role did patrons play?

There was a great disparity in the ancient Mediterranean world between the few who were wealthy and powerful and the many who were poor and powerless. A patron was a person of wealth and influence to whom a person of lesser status turned for help. Patrons provided financial assistance or used their influence to benefit their clients. Doing favors brought honor and prestige for patrons and the loyalty and praise of their clients. Wealthy people often functioned as patrons of their city by paying for public buildings or projects; today we call someone who endows a concert hall a “patron of the arts.” An ancient inscription found in Corinth speaks of an Erastus who paid out of his own funds for the paving of a street; this is likely the same Erastus who was a Christian and city treasurer (Rom 16:23). The centurion who “built the synagogue” (Luke 7:2) for the people of Capernaum acted as a patron. Women as well as men could be patrons. Mary Magdalene, Joanna, the wife of Herod’s steward Chuza, and Susanna “provided for” Jesus and his disciples “out of their resources” (Luke 8:2–3); Joanna at least would have had significant resources at her disposal. Paul converted a woman named Lydia in Philippi (Acts 16:14–15). As a dealer in expensive purple cloth she was wealthy and in charge of a household. Lydia acted as Paul’s patron, having him stay in her home and supporting him, and making her house available as a place where the Church could meet (Acts 16:40).

Who were the poor and the rich?

In first-century Galilee, few were well enough off to be what we would consider middle class and very few were wealthy. Most supported themselves by farming, usually on small plots of land. They were able to raise enough to pay taxes and feed their families, but barely. Bad harvests could mean going into debt, losing one’s land, and becoming a day laborer. Herod Antipas controlled the prime farmland, entrusting some of it to his key supporters. The minority who did not farm commonly worked as craftsmen (carpenters, potters, tanners), merchants, fishermen, servants, shepherds, or tax collectors. Some Jews were slaves, although slavery was not as common as in other parts of the Roman Empire. Most Galileans could be thought of as the working poor. At the bottom of the working poor were day laborers, dependent on being hired each day. Worst off were those unable to work: the blind, crippled, leprous. Unless they had relatives to support them, the nonworking poor survived by begging. Jesus’ followers mirrored the composition of Galilean society: most were working poor, very few were wealthy. Jesus’ ministry was marked by concern for the nonworking poor: “the blind regain their sight, the lame walk, lepers are cleansed, the deaf hear, the dead are raised, the poor have the good news proclaimed to them” (Luke 7:22). Being wealthy posed the danger of using one’s wealth only for oneself (Luke 12:16–21; 16:19–31). Wealth was properly used to help those who could not provide for themselves (Luke 12:33; 14:12–14; 18:22; 19:8).

How did servants and slaves differ?

Both servants and slaves did the bidding of others, and may even have done identical work, but with a major difference: servants were hired, slaves were owned. A servant was free to decide whom to work for and could quit; a slave had no choice but to work for his or her owner. At the time of Jesus, one became a slave by being born to a woman slave, by being taken as a prisoner of war, by incurring a debt one could not pay off, by voluntarily becoming a slave to avoid starvation, or by being kidnapped. Slaves made up around a fifth of the population in the Roman Empire. Many owners treated their slaves badly; some owners were cruel and sexually abusive. Yet there are important differences as well as similarities between slavery in the first-century Roman Empire and slavery in the Americas in the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries, and further differences as well as similarities between slavery in Palestine and slavery in other parts of the Roman Empire. In the world of Jesus, slavery was not based on race: the slaves referred to in Jesus’ parables are usually Jews owned by other Jews. Slaves could own property (including other slaves!) and hold important positions; a few slaves were better educated than their owners. Some slaves served as managers, doctors, and bankers, although most slaves in Palestine were farm workers or domestic servants. A few freely chose slavery because it offered them guaranteed employment, preferring it over working as day laborers. Most slaves, however, wanted to be free. Slaves could be freed after a certain period of service; a slave of a Roman citizen was generally given citizenship upon being freed. There are different Greek words for servant and slave, but in the Gospels the New American Bible usually translates the Greek word for slave as “servant” (e.g., Luke 2:29; 12:37; 14:17; 15:22; 19:13; 20:10; 22:50), apparently to avoid confusing the ancient practice of slavery with slavery in the American experience.

What was a talent worth?

A talent was originally a measure of weight. In its origin it may have been the weight a load-bearer could be expected to carry, somewhere between fifty and seventy-five pounds. In the book of Revelation, the “large hailstones like huge weights” that fell onto people are literally hailstones “weighing a talent” (Rev 16:21). A talent came to designate a weight of precious metal, of gold (Exod 38:24) or silver (Exod 38:25). At the time of Jesus, a talent was the largest monetary unit, equivalent to six thousand denarii, where a denarius was the usual daily wage for an ordinary worker. In the New American Bible translation of Jesus’ parable of the two debtors (Matt 18:23–35), the “huge amount” that the first debtor owes is literally “tens of thousands of talents.” Since ten thousand was the largest number used in counting and a talent the largest monetary unit, the first debtor owed the largest amount that could be conceived.

Why were tax collectors so despised?

Those who collected taxes were almost universally scorned by Jews in Palestine at the time of Jesus and were spoken of in the same breath with sinners (Matt 11:19). They were despised for several reasons. First, the tax system lent itself to abuse. One arrangement was to auction off the right to collect taxes to the highest bidder and then allow the tax collector to keep anything he could collect over that amount. That was a license for greed and extortion, and many tax collectors took advantage of it. Second, there were many forms of taxation, and together they extracted a sizeable portion of the income of ordinary people — up to 40 percent, by some estimates. Third, Jewish tax collectors were agents, directly or indirectly, of Rome. After about a century of Jewish self-rule, Rome had taken away Jewish independence in 63 B.C. and had imposed tribute or taxes. As a result of these factors, tax collectors were considered unscrupulous extortionists and were despised for working on behalf of a foreign power and draining people’s livelihoods.