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Some sociologists perform experiments (Jackson and Cox 2013). An experiment involves the manipulation of one or more characteristics in order to examine the effect of that manipulation (Kirk 2007).

A study by Devah Pager (2009) is a good example of a sociological experiment. Pager was interested in how the background of a job applicant affects the likelihood of that individual’s being called back for an interview. Pager randomly assigned fake criminal records to pairs of similar young men, one in each pair black and one white. Thus, in each pair, one person had a criminal record and one did not, and one was white and one was not. These young men then sent résumés to companies in Milwaukee, seeking entry-level jobs. One major finding of this experiment was that the young men believed to have criminal records received callbacks less than half as often as did those of the same race believed not to have criminal records.

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Figure 2.4 Random Samples and Stratified Samples

Source: Random Samples and Stratified Samples is reprinted with permission of Dan Kernler, Associate Professor of Mathematics, Elgin Community College, Elgin, IL.

In this experiment, we can clearly see the relationship between two important elements of an experiment: independent and dependent variables. In Pager’s experiment, the independent variable, the condition that was manipulated by the researcher, was the job applicant’s combination of race and criminal background. The dependent variable, the characteristic or measurement that resulted from the manipulation, was whether the applicant was called in for an interview.

There are several types of experiments (Walker and Willer 2007):

 Laboratory experiments. Laboratory experiments take place in controlled settings. The “laboratory” may be, for example, a classroom or a simulated environment. The setting offers the researcher great control over the selection of the participants as well as the independent variables—the conditions to which the participants are exposed (Lucas, Graif, and Lovaglia 2008).

 Natural experiments. Natural experiments are those in which researchers take advantage of a naturally occurring event to study its effect on one or more dependent variables. Such experiments offer the experimenter little or no control over independent variables (De Silva et al. 2010). For example, a natural experiment at Harvard University assigned first-year students from different races as roommates. Among the findings was that breakups among the roommates were more likely when an East Asian student lived with two white students (Chakravarti, Menon, and Winship 2014).

 Field experiments. In some natural situations, researchers are able to exert at least some control over who participates and what happens during experiments (Bertrand and Mullainathan 2004; Pager and Western 2012). These are called field experiments. One of the most famous studies in the history of sociology is the “Robbers Cave” field experiment (Sherif et al. [1954] 1961), so called because it took place in Robbers Cave State Park in Oklahoma. The researchers controlled important aspects of what took place at the site. For example, they were able to assign the 22 boys in the study into two groups, called the Rattlers and the Eagles. The researchers were also able to create various situations that led to rivalry, bickering, and hostility between the groups. At the end of the experiment, they had each group rate the other: 53 percent of ratings of the Eagles were unfavorable, while nearly 77 percent of ratings of the Rattlers were unfavorable. Later, the researchers introduced conditions they hoped would reduce bad feelings and friction between the groups. In fact, greater harmony between the groups was created by having them work together on tasks such as securing needed water and paying collectively and equitably for a movie that everyone wanted to see. By the end of the latter part of the experiment, just 5 percent of the ratings of the Eagles were unfavorable, and unfavorable ratings of the Rattlers had dropped to 23 percent.

 A more recent field experiment in Sweden dealt, in part, with hiring discrimination against ethnic groups (Bursell 2014). Pairs of equally qualified applicants were sent to interview for open jobs. Those with Arabic or North African names were less likely to be called back for additional consideration.