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The Eleven Virtuous Mental Factors

The eleven virtuous mental factors are all naturally virtuous, which means that they are virtuous through their own nature and not through the force of a specific motivation. If a spoonful of sugar is stirred into a cup of tea, all the tea becomes sweet because sugar is by nature sweet. Similarly, when a virtuous mental factor is present in the mind, that entire primary mind and all its attendant mental factors also become virtuous.

The eleven virtuous mental factors are:

1 Faith

2 Sense of shame

3 Consideration for others

4 Non-attachment

5 Non-hatred

6 Non-ignorance

7 Effort

8 Mental suppleness

9 Conscientiousness

10 Equanimity

11 Non-harmfulness

FAITH

DEFINITION OF FAITH

The definition of faith is a mental factor that functions principally to eliminate non-faith.

Without understanding non-faith we cannot understand faith. There are three types of non-faith: non-faith of disbelief, non-faith of non-admiration, and non-faith of not-wishing. Non-faith of disbelief is disbelief in any correct object in which it is necessary to believe to make spiritual progress, such as the objects explained in Dharma teachings. If someone correctly explains Buddha’s teachings on actions and their effects and we do not believe what they are saying, this is because the mental factor non-faith of disbelief is present in our mind. Non-faith of non-admiration is a mental factor that causes us to see faults in virtuous objects such as Dharma Teachers, the Three Jewels and other holy beings. It makes our mind unclear and confused. Non-faith of not-wishing is a mind that does not desire virtuous attainments. It prevents us from developing a wish to engage in the paths to liberation or enlightenment.

These three types of non-faith are very harmful. Disbelief prevents us from engaging in spiritual practices and attaining Dharma realizations. It is harmful even for those who are not interested in Dharma. For example, there are many diseases that doctors call cancer but which are in fact caused by spirits or by previous karma. Although these cannot be cured by ordinary medical practices, they can be cured by the healing rituals and purification practices taught by Buddha. However, for these methods to be effective we need to have faith in them. Unfortunately few people in the West have sufficient faith in these methods and so we do not have many opportunities to witness their beneficial effects.

Non-faith of non-admiration robs us of our mental peace and makes our mind turbulent and defiled. As a result, our virtuous minds decrease and we are unable to develop pure experience of Dharma. Non-faith of not-wishing harms us by preventing us from practising Dharma purely. At present, our desire to enjoy the pleasures of samsara is much stronger than our desire for spiritual attainments, and this prevents us from practising Dharma purely, undistracted by worldly concerns. The mental factor faith overcomes all three types of non-faith.

FUNCTION OF FAITH

The special function of faith is to induce virtuous aspirations. Without faith in a particular practice we will have no wish to engage in it; and without such a wish we will not put any effort into the practice and so we will not accomplish any results. Faith is the root of all spiritual attainments. If we have faith in Buddha we will develop the aspiration to become a Buddha, which will encourage us to practise the paths to enlightenment.

Faith is particularly important in the practice of Secret Mantra. An essential aspect of Tantric practice is the ­recitation of mantras, but success in mantra recitation depends largely upon the strength of our faith. A person who lacks faith may recite the mantra of his or her Deity for many years but fail to receive any attainments, whereas someone with pure faith may receive attainments after reciting the mantra for only a short time.

In Lamp of the Jewel Sutra (Skt. Ratnalokanamadharani Sutra) Buddha says:

Faith precedes all virtuous activities, like a mother.

It protects and increases all beneficial qualities,

Dispels hesitation, and rescues us from the four rivers.

Faith is the source of the siddhi of happiness.

It dispels mental defilements and turbulence, makes the mind clear,

Eliminates pride, and is the root of respect.

Faith is the supreme wealth, treasure and legs;

And is like hands with which to gather virtues.

Just as a mother gives birth to children, so faith is the source of all virtuous activities because without faith we will not engage in pure, virtuous practices. Faith prevents virtuous qualities from degenerating and causes them to increase. Believing faith dispels doubts and hesitations concerning Dharma practices. We have doubts and hesitations about Dharma because we lack faith, but when faith manifests, doubts cannot remain. Wishing faith causes us to strive to attain liberation from samsara and thereby rescues us from the ‘four rivers’ of birth, sickness, ageing and death. Some types of faith act as a direct antidote to the delusion-obstructions and the obstructions to omniscience. For example, it is because the vajra-like concen­tration of the path of meditation is conjoined with believing faith in emptiness that it can act as the direct antidote to the most subtle obstructions to omniscience.

Faith is the source of the siddhi, or attainment, of happiness, because happiness is the result of virtuous actions, and all virtuous actions are motivated by faith. Admiring faith dispels mental defilements such as bad motivations or seeing faults in holy beings such as our Spiritual Guide. By pacifying the mental turbulence caused by disturbing conceptions faith makes our mind lucid and clear. Faith overcomes our pride and is the foundation of respect for the Three Jewels and our Spiritual Guides. It is the supreme wealth because, unlike material wealth, it never deceives us. To accumulate ­material possessions we frequently have to endure physical and mental hardship, and even commit negative actions, and yet even if we succeed in becoming rich we still do not experience pure peace and happiness. Moreover, material wealth can be lost or stolen and can even endanger our life. Thus, external wealth is the source of much anxiety and discontent. The inner wealth of faith, on the other hand, brings only happiness. If we strengthen our faith we perform only virtuous actions, and when we are rich in faith we experience pure, lasting happiness. The wealth of faith cannot be destroyed by fire or stolen by thieves; even death cannot take it from us. Ultimately the wealth of faith leads us to liberation and great enlightenment, and so it is far superior to external wealth.

Faith is like a treasure because it is the source of inexhaust­ible benefit and good fortune. It is called ‘supreme legs’ because it enables us to traverse the ten Bodhisattva grounds and finally to reach the city of great enlightenment. Ordinary legs can take us only to samsaric places but the legs of faith can take us to Dakini Land, where we will meet Heruka and Vajrayogini, or to Sukhavati, the Pure Land of Buddha Amitabha. Faith is also like hands because it enables us to gather virtuous qualities. Just as we need hands to collect physical objects, so we need the hands of faith to gather the internal wealth of virtue.

DIVISIONS OF FAITH

There are three types of faith:

1 Believing faith

2 Admiring faith

3 Wishing faith

Believing faith is a belief in any object that is conducive to our spiritual development, such as the two basic objects (the two truths), the two paths (method and wisdom), and the three resultant bodies of a Buddha.

Admiring faith is a tranquil, lucid state of mind, free from negative conceptions, that arises when we contemplate the good qualities of virtuous objects or holy beings such as our Spiritual Guide. It is likened to a magical jewel that has the power to purify dirty water. When our mind is disturbed by negative conceptions it is like dirty water, but admiring faith causes these impure thoughts to subside and allows our primary mind to become lucid and pure, like clean, fresh water.

Wishing faith is a wish to follow any Dharma path, based on recognition of its good qualities. All virtuous aspirations are wishing faith. An example is the wish to become a Buddha based on recognition of a Buddha’s good qualities. Although bodhichitta is a primary mind, not a mental factor, it has two aspirations – the aspiration to attain enlightenment and the aspiration to benefit others, both of which are wishing faith. Renunciation is also wishing faith.

Believing faith is based on admiring faith, but is much stronger and more definite. Even animals occasionally develop admiring faith, but believing faith involves consciously holding a special view. Faith pervades all virtuous minds just as space pervades all places. Every virtuous mind is mixed with faith.

SENSE OF SHAME

DEFINITION OF SENSE OF SHAME

The definition of sense of shame is a mental factor that ­functions to avoid inappropriate actions for reasons that concern ourself.

Sense of shame prevents us from committing negative actions by reminding us that it is not suitable for us to engage in such actions because we are a Dharma practitioner, an ordained person, a Teacher, an adult and so on. For example, if we stop ourself from squashing a mosquito that is about to bite us by thinking ‘It is not right for me to kill this insect because I am a Buddhist’, this motivation is sense of shame.

FUNCTION OF SENSE OF SHAME

The function of sense of shame is to serve as the foun­dation of moral discipline, particularly the moral discipline of restraint. If we are unable to generate sense of shame we will find it extremely difficult to practise moral discipline. Sense of shame guards us against committing negative actions by appealing to our conscience and to the standards of behaviour that we feel to be appropriate.

DIVISIONS OF SENSE OF SHAME

There are three types of sense of shame:

1 Sense of shame that restrains us from inappropriate bodily actions

2 Sense of shame that restrains us from inappropriate verbal actions

3 Sense of shame that restrains us from inappropriate mental actions

There is also a twofold division of sense of shame based on the reasons for restraint:

1 Sense of shame that restrains us from inappropriate actions out of concern simply for ourself

2 Sense of shame that restrains us from inappropriate actions out of concern for the specific undesirable results for ourself

Examples of the first type are thinking ‘I should not do this because I am a Buddhist’, or ‘I should not do this because I am a Dharma practitioner’, or ‘I should not commit this action because I am a nun.’ Examples of the second type are thinking ‘I should not do this because it will damage my Dharma practice’, or ‘I should not do this because it will cause me to take rebirth in the lower realms’, or ‘It is inappropriate for me to commit this action because it transgresses my commitments.’

CONSIDERATION FOR OTHERS

DEFINITION OF CONSIDERATION FOR OTHERS

The definition of consideration for others is a mental factor that functions to avoid inappropriate actions for reasons that concern others.

Examples of consideration are holding back from saying something unpleasant because it will upset another person, or giving up fishing because of the suffering it causes the fish. We need to practise consideration whenever we are with other people by being mindful of how our behaviour might disturb them or harm them. Our desires are endless, and some of them would cause other people much distress if we acted them out. Therefore, before we act on a wish we should consider whether it will disturb or harm others, and if we think that it will we should not do it. If we are concerned for the welfare of others we will naturally practise consideration.

FUNCTION OF CONSIDERATION FOR OTHERS

The main function of consideration is the same as that of sense of shame – to serve as the foundation of the moral discipline of restraint. Consideration is important for Dharma practitioners and non-practitioners alike. If we are considerate, others will like us and respect us, and our relationships with our family and friends will be harmonious and long-lasting. Without consideration, however, relationships quickly deteri­orate. Consideration prevents others from losing faith in us and is the basis for developing a mind of rejoicing.

Consideration for others is the foundation of the spiritual path. One of the commitments of going for refuge is not to cause harm to others, and this is the essence of the practice of consideration. If we do not practise consideration our experience of advanced practices such as tummo meditation and vajra recitation will quickly degenerate; and our aim should be to progress in our spiritual practice, not to regress.

Whether we are a good person or a bad person depends upon whether or not we have sense of shame and consid­eration. Without these two mental factors our daily behaviour will soon become negative and cause others to turn away from us. Sense of shame and consideration are like beautiful clothes that cause others to be attracted to us. Without them we are like a naked person whom everyone tries to avoid.

DIVISIONS OF CONSIDERATION FOR OTHERS

There are three types of consideration for others:

1 Consideration for others that restrains us from ­inappropriate bodily actions

2 Consideration for others that restrains us from ­inappropriate verbal actions

3 Consideration for others that restrains us from ­inappropriate mental actions

There is also a twofold division of consideration for others based on the reasons for restraint:

1 Consideration for others that restrains us from inappro­priate actions out of concern simply for others

2 Consideration for others that restrains us from ­inappropriate actions out of concern for the specific undesirable results for others

NON-ATTACHMENT

DEFINITION OF NON-ATTACHMENT

The definition of non-attachment is a mental factor that functions as the direct opponent of attachment.

Non-attachment is not simply freedom from attachment but a mental factor that directly opposes attachment. Attachment harms us greatly by preventing us from developing the wish to escape from samsara. As long as we are attached to samsaric places, enjoyments and bodies we will not be able to develop the wish to abandon samsara, and so we will continue to accumulate contaminated karma that throws us into samsaric rebirths. To attain liberation we must first overcome attachment to this life by practising the stages of the path of initial scope, and then overcome attachment to samsara in general by practising the stages of the path of intermediate scope. In this way we develop renunciation, which is a type of non-attachment.

FUNCTION OF NON-ATTACHMENT

Non-attachment is the gateway to liberation. Attachment is like a rope that ties us to samsara. As long as we have strong attachment we have no mental freedom but are controlled by circumstances, like a puppet on a string. As soon as a pleasant object presents itself to our mind we automatically develop attachment, which causes us more problems and binds us even more tightly to samsara. To overcome this attachment and develop a genuine interest in attaining liberation from samsara we need to train in non-attachment.

To practise non-attachment it is not necessary to avoid all objects of attachment. In fact, this is impossible in our present circumstances because wherever we go we find objects of attachment. If we try to avoid places or people to whom we are attached by going elsewhere, we will soon find ourself developing attachment to new places and new friends; and if we try to abstain from all the things we presently enjoy, such as food, drink, and clothing, we will find it difficult to survive. Rather than trying to avoid objects of attachment, the way to practise non-attachment is to recognize the faults of the mind of attachment and then to try to abandon that mind. The faults of attachment are explained below in the section on attachment.

DIVISIONS OF NON-ATTACHMENT

There are three types of non-attachment:

1 Non-attachment to samsaric places

2 Non-attachment to samsaric enjoyments

3 Non-attachment to samsaric bodies

There is another threefold division:

1 Non-attachment to this life

2 Non-attachment to samsara

3 Non-attachment to solitary peace

Ordinary beings have attachment to this life and attachment to samsara, but only those who have attained tranquil abiding can develop attachment to solitary peace. Some Hinayana Foe Destroyers, for example, remain in the peace of concentration for thousands of years, during which time they do nothing to help other sentient beings. Although their attachment to peace is not an actual delusion, it is called ‘attachment’ to emphasize the fact that it is a major obstacle to the Bodhisattva’s way of life. Bodhisattvas consider attachment to solitary peace to be more harmful than ordinary attachment. If a Bodhisattva generates attachment towards his or her family this will not necessarily cause his compassion or his wish to benefit others to diminish, but if he develops attachment to solitary peace his compassion and bodhichitta will definitely degenerate. Moreover, if he remains too long in a state of solitary peace he will transgress his commitment to benefit others. Bodhisattvas on the first and second grounds experience ordinary attachment, but this does not disturb their spiritual practice, and they are able to use it as a means of benefiting others. Just as farmers use unpleasant things such as manure to create favourable conditions for growing crops, so Bodhisattvas use their attachment as a means of helping others. The main objects to be abandoned by Bodhisattvas are attachment to solitary peace and concern for their own welfare.

We overcome these three types of attachment by training in the stages of the path of the three scopes. By practising the stages of the path of initial scope we overcome attachment to this life, by practising the stages of the path of intermediate scope we overcome attachment to samsara in general, and by practising the stages of the path of great scope we overcome attachment to solitary peace.

NON-HATRED

DEFINITION OF NON-HATRED

The definition of non-hatred is a mental factor that functions as the direct opponent of hatred.

In Guide to the Bodhisattva’s Way of Life Shantideva says:

There is no evil greater than anger,

And no virtue greater than patience.

Hatred, or anger, is the most destructive of all non-virtuous minds. It has the power to destroy our Dharma experiences and the merit we have accumulated in the past. Unless we make an effort to practise non-hatred we will find it difficult to control our anger; and if our mind is filled with anger we will not experience peace or happiness. When we are angry we cannot enjoy life, even if we live in a luxurious house and eat the most expensive food. It is difficult to fall asleep with an angry mind, and when we do sleep we have unpleasant, disturbing dreams. When anger controls our mind we develop the intention to harm others, and we may even wish to kill ourself. We usually cherish ourself dearly, but hatred can so disturb our mind that we consider committing suicide. Shantideva said that for as long as we harbour painful thoughts of anger our mind will not experience peace.

Unless we have some experience of Dharma we will think that our enemies are other people who cause us harm, but according to Dharma our real enemies are the delusions in our mind, such as anger and attachment. If we regard other people as our enemies we will try to harm them, and this will only make the situation worse. Our relationships will deteriorate, and we will gradually accumulate more and more enemies. On the other hand, if we practise love, regarding all living beings as our kind mothers, our relationships will improve and our problems will gradually disappear. If we are going to retaliate we should do so against our delusions, for they are the source of all the harm we experience. If we succeed in destroying these inner enemies we will bring an end to all our suffering and problems, but if we show them patience and understanding they will continue to betray and harm us.

The mental factor non-hatred opposes our internal enemy of hatred. If we are about to develop hatred towards someone but counter it by thinking ‘It is inappropriate for me to hate this person because hatred is like poison’, we are practising non-hatred. It is most important to practise non-hatred as soon as we detect signs of anger or hatred arising in our mind. Anger is like fire. If we detect a fire as soon as it starts it will be easy to extinguish, but if we wait until it has taken hold it will be very difficult to control. In the same way, if we catch anger as soon as it arises in our mind we can easily counter it with non-hatred, but if we leave it to develop fully we will find it very difficult to stop. Therefore, as soon as we become aware that anger is about to manifest we should prevent it by reflecting on its many disadvantages. These are explained extensively in the chapter on patience in Shantideva’s Guide to the Bodhisattva’s Way of Life and in the commentary Meaningful to Behold.

FUNCTION OF NON-HATRED

Non-hatred has many functions. It overcomes irritation and frustration and enables us to respond to adverse conditions with a calm and positive mind. It frees us from the inner pain of hatred, and makes our mind smooth and comfortable at all times. It is the basis for generating affectionate love and all the other Mahayana realizations. When our mind is filled with non-hatred we have no enemies because everyone appears to us as kind and agreeable. As a result, we do not engage in negative actions such as fighting or killing, and so we do not have to suffer the consequences of such actions. Affectionate love, cherishing love, wishing love, compassion and patience are all the nature of non-hatred.

DIVISIONS OF NON-HATRED

There are three types of non-hatred:

1 Non-hatred towards those who harm us

2 Non-hatred towards inanimate objects that cause us suffering

3 Non-hatred towards resultant suffering

The first type is the same as the patience of not-retaliating. If someone attacks us, insults us or causes us harm in some other way, and we manage to stop ourself getting angry with them, it is the first type of non-hatred that prevents the anger from arising.

There are many inanimate objects with which we get angry. For example, we may get angry with the weather if it is too hot or too cold, with our car if it will not start, or with a piece of furniture if it falls on our foot. Some people are angered by the existence of nuclear weapons or pollution, while others become upset if their food is not to their ­liking. Whenever we encounter inanimate objects that cause us suffer­ing we should remember the futility of getting angry with such things and prevent anger by practising the second type of non-hatred.

The third type of non-hatred, non-hatred towards resultant suffering, is the patience of voluntarily enduring suffering. When we are unhappy or sick we are much more prone to anger than when we are happy and healthy. People who are usually patient when they are well often develop a bad temper when they are sick. This indicates that they lack the patience of voluntarily enduring suffering. All our suffering, both physical and mental, is the result of our own negative karma. Therefore, when we are about to become angry with our suffering we should think:

This pain is the result of my own non-virtuous actions. Since I committed these negative actions I must experience their resultant suffering. Therefore, I must accept this suffering patiently.

If we are able to think like this we will not get angry or upset but will be able to endure our suffering with a peaceful mind. If our pain becomes unbearable we should try to ease it with medicines or, if our mind is strong enough, use our pain to enhance our experience of the two bodhichittas by meditating on compassion and emptiness. With a direct realization of emptiness we will not experience pain even if our limbs are cut off, because when we have seen emptiness directly we experience only peace. Even a relatively superficial experience of emptiness can ease our pain and restore our body and mind to health. We should use whatever methods we can to cure our sickness but even if these fail there is no point in becoming angry with our pain, for this will just add mental suffering to our physical suffering.

NON-IGNORANCE

DEFINITION OF NON-IGNORANCE

The definition of non-ignorance is a mental factor that functions as the direct opponent of ignorance.

Non-ignorance is a special type of wisdom that acts as the antidote to ignorance. Examples are wisdom realizing selflessness of persons and wisdom realizing selflessness of phenomena.

FUNCTION OF NON-IGNORANCE

The function of non-ignorance is to enable us to understand emptiness, the ultimate nature of phenomena. As our understanding of emptiness grows, our ignorance gradually becomes weaker, and is eventually eradicated altogether. The temporary benefit of non-ignorance is that it helps us to overcome daily problems that are caused by attachment, anger and other delusions; its long-term benefit is that it leads us to liberation and enlightenment. Our friends and family cannot solve our internal problems for us, and even our Spiritual Guides cannot remove them directly. The only way to eliminate our mental problems is to rely upon our own wisdom. Those who possess wisdom realizing emptiness can solve all their internal problems by meditating on emptiness. It is because we lack this wisdom that we need to ask others for advice when we are confronted with problems. If we had wisdom we would be able to solve all our own problems.

The benefits of wisdom realizing emptiness are inconceivable. If we had a million pounds in our pocket it would cause us much anxiety and possibly even endanger our life, but if instead of money we possessed wisdom realizing emptiness we would have no worries or problems. We would be able to use our wisdom all the time, and it would be a constant source of guidance and comfort to us. Therefore, wisdom realizing emptiness is the supreme friend and the supreme wealth.

DIVISIONS OF NON-IGNORANCE

There are four types of non-ignorance:

1 Non-ignorance arisen from listening or reading

2 Non-ignorance arisen from contemplation

3 Non-ignorance arisen from meditation

4 Non-ignorance arisen from imprints

The first three types of non-ignorance can be understood from the three wisdoms – wisdom arisen from listening or reading, wisdom arisen from contemplation, and wisdom arisen from meditation – explained previously in the section on wisdom. However, whereas the three wisdoms as presented in the previous explanation are not necessarily wisdom realizing emptiness, here, because non-ignorance is the direct opponent of ignorance, they are. The fourth type of non-ignorance is a wisdom realizing emptiness that arises naturally from imprints from past lives without the need to study emptiness in this life. It is also known as the ‘wisdom attained just through the power of birth’. Some people who have meditated deeply and for a long time on emptiness in a previous life are able to carry this understanding into this present life, and as a result they are able to understand empti­ness very easily without having to study or contemplate for a long time. When we eventually attain the concentration of the Dharma continuum on the path of accumulation we will not forget any Dharma that we study but will carry all our knowledge with us into the next life.

In Training the Mind in Seven Points Geshe Chekhawa says:

The three objects, three poisons, and three virtuous roots

Are the brief instruction for the subsequent attainment.

The three objects are attractive objects, unattractive objects and neutral objects; the three poisons are attachment, hatred and ignorance; and the three virtuous roots are non-attachment, non-hatred and non-ignorance. When ordinary beings encounter the three objects they automatically develop the three poisons. The essential aim of Dharma practice is to reverse this so that we automatically develop the three virtuous roots instead. When someone who has thoroughly trained their mind in Dharma meets an attractive object they develop not attachment but non-attachment; when they meet an unattractive object they develop not hatred but non-hatred; and when they meet a neutral object they develop not ignorance but non-ignorance. Since all objects are included within the three objects, those who have mastered the three virtuous roots are able to transform all their experiences into the path to enlightenment. This is why the three virtuous roots are called the ‘essence of Buddhadharma’.

EFFORT

DEFINITION OF EFFORT

The definition of effort is a mental factor that makes its primary mind delight in virtue.

Effort functions to make our mind happy to engage in virtue – delighting in actions such as giving, helping others, making prostrations, making offerings, reciting prayers, reading Dharma books and listening to Dharma teachings. Effort is necessarily virtuous. Minds that strive for ordinary goals, such as business achievements, and minds that delight in non-virtue, are not effort.

The opposite of effort is laziness. There are three types of laziness: laziness arising from attachment to worldly pleasures, laziness arising from attachment to distracting activities and laziness arising from discouragement. In general, fondness for sleep is a type of laziness, but if we are able to practise the yoga of sleeping and transform sleep into a virtuous action, then the mind that enjoys sleep is effort. Similarly, if we transform other neutral actions such as eating, cooking and playing into virtuous actions by performing them with a good motivation, our enjoyment of them is also the mental factor effort.

FUNCTION OF EFFORT

The function of effort is to instigate virtue, protect virtue from degenerating, facilitate the increase of virtuous qualities and bring virtuous practices to completion. In Ornament for Mahayana Sutras Maitreya lists many benefits of effort:

Among virtuous collections, effort is supreme.

With effort we can accomplish all virtuous qualities,

With effort we can accomplish a peaceful body and mind,

With effort we can accomplish mundane and supramundane attainments,

With effort we can obtain the pleasures of samsara,

With effort we can take rebirth in a Pure Land,

With effort we can be freed from delusions such as the view of the transitory collection, and attain liberation,

With effort we can attain great enlightenment.

Effort is the supreme virtue because all virtuous qualities are attained through the power of effort. Effort makes both body and mind peaceful, comfortable and healthy by inducing physical and mental suppleness. When we have attained physical suppleness we do not need physical exercise to keep our body flexible and healthy. By relying upon effort we can attain both mundane and supramundane attainments, such as the Highest Yoga Tantra realizations of Deities like Heruka and Vajrayogini. Even the happiness of humans or gods depends solely upon our own effort because if we do not make an effort to practise virtuous actions we will not be able to take such rebirths in the future. Similarly, as Dharma practitioners we have the opportunity to attain rebirth in a Pure Land, but whether we succeed in doing so depends upon our own effort. If we joyfully and continually engage in the methods for attaining rebirth in a Pure Land our wishes will definitely be fulfilled.

We may be aware of the faults of delusions such as the view of the transitory collection, and we may have heard teachings on how to eliminate them and attain liberation, but we will succeed in this only if we apply strenuous effort. If we do not apply ourself to our Dharma practice no one can grant us liberation from suffering – not our spiritual friends, our Spiritual Guide, nor even all the Buddhas. We all have the seed of Buddhahood within our mental continuum, and we have the opportunity to practise the methods for ripening this seed, but our attainment of Buddhahood depends upon our own efforts. An intellectual understanding of Dharma is not sufficient to carry us to Buddhahood – we must also overcome our laziness and put our knowledge into practice. All those who have already become Buddhas have attained enlightenment through their own effort, and all those who will become Buddhas in the future will do so through their effort. In the Sutras, Buddha says:

If you have only effort you have all Dharmas,

But if you have only laziness you have nothing.

A person who has no great knowledge of Dharma but who nevertheless applies effort consistently will gradually attain all virtuous qualities; but a person who knows a great deal and has only one fault – laziness – will not be able to increase his or her good qualities and gain experience of Dharma. Many other benefits of effort are mentioned in Shantideva’s Guide to the Bodhisattva’s Way of Life and Chandrakirti’s Guide to the Middle Way.

DIVISIONS OF EFFORT

In Guide to the Bodhisattva’s Way of Life Shantideva presents four types of effort:

1 Armour-like effort

2 Effort of non-discouragement

3 Effort of application

4 Effort of non-satisfaction

All four types of effort are very important for Dharma practitioners. The first two overcome conditions unfavourable to the practice of Dharma, the third actually engages in Dharma practice, and the fourth enables us to complete our practice.

Armour-like effort is a courageous mind that helps us to persevere in our Dharma practice no matter what hardships are involved. We can generate this effort by thinking:

I will continue to practise Dharma even if it takes me many aeons to attain great enlightenment. I will never give up my Dharma practice, no matter what difficulties I might encounter.

If we have armour-like effort we will have a long-term perspective that prevents us from being discouraged by unfavourable external conditions, and we will joyfully persevere with our practice even if it takes a long time to attain Dharma realizations. In the past when soldiers went to war they wore armour to protect their bodies; similarly when Dharma practitioners wage war against their delusions they need to wear armour-like effort to protect their minds against difficult external conditions.

We need armour-like effort at the outset because without it we may soon become discouraged by the length of time it takes to attain realizations, and as a result we may abandon our Dharma practice. Sometimes, when we find it difficult to fulfil our spiritual expectations, encounter others who are trying to dissuade us from practising or have difficulty in finding the resources to support our practice, we may consider giving up Dharma. If this happens it indicates that we lack armour-like effort. At such times we need to recall our initial enthusiasm, and strengthen our resolve by reminding ourself of the benefits of our practice.

Whereas armour-like effort protects our practice against external obstacles, the effort of non-discouragement protects us against the internal obstacle of discouragement. We may wonder ‘How is it possible for someone like me who has so many delusions and so little time to practise Dharma to realize emptiness, develop bodhichitta, and attain liberation and enlightenment?’ By indulging in such thoughts we may conclude that we are incapable of attaining realizations. To counteract this kind of discouragement we need to generate the effort of non-discouragement by contemplating correct reasons. For example, we can contemplate:

Sometimes my delusions are strong and sometimes they are weak. This indicates that they are impermanent. If they can be reduced temporarily, they can be eradicated altogether; so why can I not attain liberation? Buddha said that everyone has Buddha nature. If I rely sincerely upon my Spiritual Guide and practise sincerely what he or she teaches me there is no reason why I cannot attain enlightenment. With my mind empowered by my Guru’s blessings I can accomplish anything.

The effort of application is a mind that engages in the practice of Dharma with delight. This effort inspires us to listen to (or read), contemplate, and meditate on Dharma teachings. It is the source of all our understanding and experi­ence of Dharma. This effort can be either forceful or steady. Sometimes it is appropriate to use forceful effort to reach a specific goal or to overcome a particular obstacle, but it is difficult to sustain this kind of effort and it may soon lead to tiredness or discouragement. For the most part we should practise with steady effort, like a broad river flowing constantly. We should adjust our expectations and not hope for quick results, but practise steadily and constantly over a long period.

The effort of non-satisfaction encourages us continually to deepen our understanding and experience of Dharma by not being satisfied with a merely superficial experience or understanding. After having studied Dharma for two or three years we may feel contented with our understanding and feel that we have no need to listen to more teachings or to continue to meditate. Such a complacent attitude prevents us from developing deep experience and understanding. We cannot expect great results after only a few years’ practice. Until we have reached the final realizations of great enlightenment we need continuously to listen to teachings and meditate on their meaning.

Bodhisattvas on the first ground are not satisfied with their realizations, even though compared to ordinary beings they have attained exalted states of mind. Spurred on by the effort of non-satisfaction they ascend to the second ground, where again the same effort prevents them from becoming complacent and urges them to strive for higher goals. In this way they progress through all ten grounds to the final goal of great enlightenment.

Great enlightenment is called the ‘Path of No More Learning’ because it is the only state of complete fulfilment. Before we reach this stage we still have things to learn and so our Dharma practice is not yet complete. We should not be discouraged by the fact that we will have to practise Dharma for a long time. If we abandon the path to liberation or enlightenment we will never find a better path. All other paths will lead us into samsara; and no matter how much effort we put into following samsaric paths we will never experience true happiness. In our previous lives we put great effort into accumulating material wealth, but now everything we owned has vanished; our effort was in vain. In the past we have enjoyed every conceivable samsaric pleasure, but now we have nothing to show for it. All that remain are the imprints of the negative actions we committed in fulfilling our desires. Now that we have the opportunity to follow a perfect path that definitely leads to ultimate happiness it would be a great shame if we were to abandon it for a worldly path.

In summary, at the outset of our practice we should generate armour-like effort and arm ourself with a strong determ­ination to complete our practice, no matter how long it may take or how many external obstacles we may have to overcome. Armed with this effort we should then generate the effort of application and apply ourself steadily and confidently to our practice. To prevent ourself from becoming discouraged by the extent and duration of our practice we should develop the effort of non-discouragement; and to prevent complacency and ensure that we bring our practice to completion we should rely upon the effort of non-satisfaction.

In Compendium of Abhidharma Asanga presents a fivefold division of effort:

1 Armour-like effort

2 Effort of non-discouragement

3 Effort of application

4 Effort of non-satisfaction

5 Effort of irreversibility

The first four are the same as the four just explained. The fifth, the effort of irreversibility, is a type of effort that prevents harmful conditions, such as wrong advice or bad friends, from diverting us from our virtuous activities. It is called ‘irreversibility’ because it ensures that we continue until our goal is reached with no lessening or diversion of our energy. If we have armour-like effort and the effort of non-discouragement we will automatically have the effort of irreversibility.

In the Lamrim teachings, three types of effort are explained:

1 Armour-like effort

2 Effort of gathering virtuous Dharmas

3 Effort of benefiting others

In this classification armour-like effort is the same as that previously explained, and the other two are included within the effort of application. Because there are two types of virtuous action – gathering virtuous Dharmas and benefiting others – there are two types of effort of application that correspond to these.

Effort does not arise naturally but is generated by using special methods. In Guide to the Bodhisattva’s Way of Life Shantideva explains four powers that are the methods for sustaining and increasing effort: the power of aspiration, the power of steadfastness, the power of joy and the power of rejection.

The power of aspiration is a strong wish to practise Dharma. This is cultivated by contemplating both the benefits of training in Dharma and the disadvantages of not training in Dharma. All our problems are the result of taking rebirth in samsara, and the reason we continue to take uncontrolled rebirth is that we do not have sufficient experience of Dharma. Since experience of Dharma depends upon training in Dharma we can say that all our problems are the result of not training in Dharma.

If we do not train in Dharma we will never find real inner peace, and we will remain ignorant of profound and important truths such as the hidden objects that are explained in Dharma. We will not be able even to identify the self-grasping mind that imprisons us in samsara, let alone abandon it. Even though many of the fifty-one mental factors manifest in our mind, if we do not train in Dharma we will not be able to recognize them, and so we will not be able to distinguish those that should be cultivated from those that should be rejected.

One of the main benefits of training in Dharma is that day by day our wisdom grows sharper and our ignorance becomes weaker. The more wisdom we have, the more peaceful our mind will be. Through training in Dharma we gradually attain all the spiritual realizations that directly protect us from suffering. All our problems are caused by desirous attachment, anger, jealousy and other negative minds. By gaining experience of virtuous minds such as love, compassion, patience and wisdom we will overcome these negative minds. These virtuous minds are our real refuge. Thus, by training in Dharma we build a refuge within our own mind. Eventually we will become a refuge for all beings, a Buddha Jewel. By contemplating these benefits of training in Dharma we develop the aspiration to practise Dharma and this makes our effort more powerful. For this reason the aspiration to practise Dharma is called a ‘power’.

Having developed the power of aspiration we should practise the power of steadfastness, which means that we should make our effort in Dharma practice stable and unchangeable by developing a strong determination. In the chapter on effort in Guide to the Bodhisattva’s Way of Life Shantideva advises us that before we commit ourself to engaging in a practice we should investigate it carefully to see whether it is suitable and whether we can sustain it; but once we have committed ourself to it we should never turn back but continue until we attain the final result. Switching from one practice to another unrelated practice not only prevents us from fulfilling our wishes in this life, but also makes it diffi­cult for us to accomplish our goals in future lives. Moreover, it is often the cause of breaking our commitments and severing precious relationships, such as those that exist between Guru and disciple, and between spiritual friends.

We must be careful not to misunderstand the effort of non-satisfaction. Practising this effort does not mean that we should become dissatisfied with our tradition or with our main practice, and try to follow many different traditions or mix together many different practices. Every Teacher and every tradition has a slightly different approach and employs different methods. The practices taught by one Teacher will differ from those taught by another, and if we try to combine them we will become confused, develop doubts, and lose direction. If we try to create a synthesis of different traditions we will destroy the special power of each and be left only with a mishmash of our own making that will be a source of confusion and doubt. Having chosen our tradition and our daily practices we should rely upon them single-pointedly, never allowing dissatisfaction to arise. At the same time as cherishing our own tradition we should respect all other traditions and the right of each individual to follow the tradition of their choosing. This approach leads to harmony and tolerance. It is mixing different religious traditions that causes sectarianism. This is why it is said that studying non-religious subjects is less of an obstacle to our spiritual progress than studying religions of different traditions.

Once we have decided which tradition to follow and which practices to do, we should engage in them wholeheartedly with a joyful mind. This is the power of joy. Whether we are listening to Dharma teachings, reading Dharma books, reciting prayers, contemplating or meditating, we should do so with a light and happy mind, like a child at play. If we enjoy a practice we will naturally have enthusiasm for it.

We may think that renunciation, for example, is a joyless state of mind because it is so keenly aware of the suffering nature of samsara, but in fact renunciation is a light and peaceful mind that is bound for freedom. Renunciation is induced by wisdom, and wisdom never gives rise to unhappiness. Joy is called a ‘power’ because it sustains our effort in practising Dharma. If Dharma practice brings us no pleasure we will soon become exhausted.

The fourth power, the power of rejection, means to reject, or eliminate, tiredness. Sometimes as a result of studying, meditating or other virtuous activities, we become physically or mentally tired. If our body becomes tired, our mind can easily become unbalanced. If instead of resting we push ourself beyond our capacity, this can cause problems such as physical illness or a disinclination to practise. It is better to relax for a while and resume our practice when our body and mind are fresh and comfortable. This is particularly important when we are doing a lot of formal meditation. Knowing when to exert ourself and when to rest is essential for successful practice.

Besides the ability to know when to stop and relax, the power of rejection also includes the ability to postpone taking on more advanced practices until we have built a suitable foundation for them, and the ability to leave behind a particular stage of development and progress to higher stages.

These four powers are explained in detail in Meaningful to Behold and Joyful Path of Good Fortune.

MENTAL SUPPLENESS

DEFINITION OF MENTAL SUPPLENESS

The definition of mental suppleness is a flexibility of mind induced by virtuous concentration.

In general, concentration induces two types of suppleness – physical suppleness and mental suppleness – but only the latter is the mental factor suppleness. Physical suppleness is a flexible and light tactile object within our body that develops when meditation causes a pure wind to pervade the body. It purifies defiled winds and makes our body flexible and light, and this in turn induces mental suppleness.

FUNCTION OF MENTAL SUPPLENESS

Physical suppleness functions to overcome stiffness and inflexibility of the body, and makes our body feel light, comfortable and easy to use in virtuous actions. Mental suppleness removes the inflexibility, slowness and heaviness of the mind, and makes it light and easy to use in virtuous actions. The mental rigidity that is dispelled by suppleness is the basis of many delusions, and is a principal cause of resistance to and dislike of virtuous activities. By removing rigidity, suppleness overcomes laziness and other obstacles. However, only strong suppleness can do this effectively; weak, short-lived suppleness does not have the strength to overcome many obstacles.

Both physical and mental suppleness develop initially through meditation, and then function to refine and improve our concentration. Mental suppleness enables us to direct our mind wherever we wish and thus helps both analytical meditation and placement meditation. Through attaining full, authentic physical and mental suppleness we will continuously experience the physical and mental bliss of suppleness, and as a result we will feel little need to seek external sources of pleasure.

DIVISIONS OF MENTAL SUPPLENESS

There are two types of mental suppleness:

1 Subtle mental suppleness

2 Gross mental suppleness

Mental suppleness exists whenever we experience pure, virtuous concentration. However, on the first and second mental abidings the mental suppleness is so subtle that it goes unnoticed. Therefore this suppleness is called ‘subtle mental suppleness’. Gross mental suppleness first develops on the third mental abiding. From then on it gradually becomes stronger and stronger until we attain tranquil abiding, at which point our suppleness is fully developed. At this stage suppleness pervades our body and mind, and we experience the bliss of suppleness without interruption. When we have attained this unchangeable suppleness we no longer experience the physical and mental discomfort that make virtuous actions difficult, and so we become completely free from laziness. With suppleness, spiritual practice is very easy because when it arises our mind naturally becomes tranquil and positive.

Initially, mental suppleness is developed through the force of concentration, but there is also a type of suppleness that is induced by wisdom. This is accomplished as a result of analytical meditation combined with tranquil abiding. The development of this type of suppleness marks the attainment of superior seeing. With superior seeing, our wisdom and concentration become mutually beneficial, and we attain the union of tranquil abiding and superior seeing.

CONSCIENTIOUSNESS

DEFINITION OF CONSCIENTIOUSNESS

The definition of conscientiousness is a mental factor that, in dependence upon effort, cherishes what is virtuous and guards the mind from delusion and non-virtue.

Conscientiousness prevents the mind from being influenced by a delusion. There are two ways to rely upon conscientiousness. The first is to keep our mind free from a delusion by preventing our mind from meeting the objects of that delusion. We can, for example, prevent ourself from getting angry with someone with whom we have had a disagreement by avoiding them and not thinking about them. The second way is to prevent our mind from developing inappro­priate attention when it meets with objects of delusion. Inappropriate attention causes delusions to arise by exaggerating the good or bad qualities of an object. If we prevent inappropriate attention it is impossible for delusions to arise, even if we are directly confronted with an object of delusion. Thus, for example, if we unexpectedly meet someone with whom we normally get angry we can avoid inappropriate attention, and so prevent anger, by focusing on his or her good qualities or by remembering the faults of anger.

In Guide to the Bodhisattva’s Way of Life Shantideva says that there is no practice more important than keeping our mind free from negativity. Normally we take great care to protect our body from injury, but it is much more important to protect our mind. For example, if we are crossing a busy street we take great care to avoid being run over, but if we were to be run over the worst that could happen would be that we would lose this one life. By contrast, if we do not take care to protect our mind from negativity when we are surrounded by so many objects of delusion there is great danger of our mind being overrun by delusions, which will inflict harm on us for many future lives. Therefore, the practice of conscientiousness is of paramount importance.

Conscientiousness should be practised in conjunction with mindfulness and alertness. With mindfulness we tie our mind to a virtuous object. A virtuous object is any object that has a positive effect on our mind, such as the objects of meditation presented later in this book and the twenty-one objects of meditation presented in The New Meditation Handbook. We should try to keep our mind on virtuous objects all the time. Alertness is a type of wisdom that understands the faults of delusions and keeps watch over our mind to check whether or not we are beginning to develop inappropriate attention. If through alertness we discover that a delusion is about to arise we should immediately prevent it by recalling the faults of delu­sions. This is the practice of conscientiousness. Shantideva said that when an elephant runs amok it can cause a great deal of harm, but this is nothing compared to the harm caused by the crazy elephant of an unconscientious mind, which can drag us into the deepest hell. By binding our mind to the pillar of virtuous objects with the rope of mindfulness we protect ourself from delusions, the source of all danger, and find it easy to make progress in our spiritual practice.

FUNCTION OF CONSCIENTIOUSNESS

The main function of conscientiousness is to enable us to keep pure moral discipline and to improve our concen­tration. Conscientiousness is so important that in Guide to the Bodhisattva’s Way of Life Shantideva devotes an entire chapter to it.

Through practising conscientiousness we can reduce our delusions and thereby stop committing negative actions of body, speech and mind. As a result we will naturally possess pure moral discipline. If our delusions are diminished and our life becomes more disciplined we will develop far fewer distractions, and as a result we will find it easy to make progress in meditation.

If our meditation is not proceeding well we do not need to seek special advice on how to improve it – we need only to practise conscientiousness. As mentioned before, in the Vinaya Sutras Buddha says that through moral discipline we will attain concentration and through concentration we will attain wisdom. Since conscientiousness is the root of moral discipline it follows that concentration and wisdom also depend upon conscientiousness. By practising conscientiousness we keep our mind pure and harnessed to virtuous objects, and so our energy is not dissipated by external or internal distractions. As a result our mind becomes settled and gathered within, making it easy for us to develop virtuous concen­tration. Virtuous concentration makes our mind lucid and powerful, which in turn enables us to improve our wisdom.

How to Understand the Mind

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