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Paul in His Own Words

This chapter will explore the contours of Paul’s apostolic calling and ministry as revealed in his undisputed letters. The complex picture of Paul emerging from these letters is comprised of several important components, which are established by select biblical passages.106 In later chapters, literary similarities between some of these passages in the undisputed letters and passages in either non-Pauline or disputed letters will be examined in more detail. The goal of the chapter, however, is to understand the overall picture Paul painted of his calling and ministry.

There is a group of interlocking themes that relate to Paul’s calling as an apostle of Christ. These themes include the account of Paul’s revelation from Christ on the road to Damascus, his sense of God’s grace in choosing and empowering him, the revelation of the mystery of the gospel to Paul, the Old Testament foundations of Paul’s ministry perspective, Paul’s standing as an apostle in relation to the other apostles, and Paul’s ministry through suffering and imprisonment. One topic that is not examined in a separate section, but is analyzed as it surfaces in the other sections throughout the chapter, is the Gentile-orientation of Paul’s ministry. Though the rest of the themes have significant overlap with one another, for the purposes of this chapter they will be examined in separate sections.

Paul’s Account of His Damascus Road Experience

Paul’s Damascus road call is an appropriate place to start, since he recognized this experience as uniquely formative in his ministry direction. In Paul’s letters, this episode is depicted primarily in Gal 1:11–17.107 Paul aims to defend the divine origins of his gospel and apostleship in this passage. He does so by pointing to his encounter with Christ on the road to Damascus.

The whole passage, especially Gal 1:11–12, reiterates an emphasis begun in Gal 1:1, where Paul states that God, and not any human authority, gave him his status as apostle. Paul’s assertion in Gal 1:11–12, that Jesus himself gave Paul the gospel message, defines the argument he will unfold in the verses that follow.108 Paul is insistent that his ministry arises not from human but from divine authority. The similar wording in Gal 1:11–12, this time applied to the gospel and revelation (ἀποκαλύψις ’Ιησοῦ Χριστοῦ)109 received by Paul, suggests that Paul’s gospel, apostleship, and revelation are intricately connected to one another and to the Damascus road event. In no uncertain terms, Paul asserts that God supernaturally bestowed this calling and message upon him.

Paul also speaks of this calling and encounter with Christ as having arrived through the grace of God (1:15). Paul views his appointment to ministry as a product of grace because he recognizes that he had been an unlikely candidate for such a privileged task. In his prior aggressive opposition to the church and pursuit of advancement in Judaism (Gal 1:13–14), he had revealed his loyalties quite clearly. Only an abrupt, divine act of grace, ordained from before his birth, had altered the course of Paul’s life and ministry (1:15). This sudden change of direction conforms to the accounts of Paul’s Damascus road experience in Acts. The topic of God’s grace to Paul will receive further attention in the next section.

The grace of God on the way to Damascus is mentioned within the context of the revelation of God’s son (1:16). The infinitive clause ἀποκαλύψαι τὸν υἱὸν αὐτοῦ ἐν ἐμοί completes the verb εὐδόκησεν from 1:15. This verb has God as its subject, though the manuscript testimony is divided as to whether God is mentioned explicitly.110 Either way, the head verb highlights God’s initiative as a key feature of Paul’s call.111 The infinitive clause is open to several interpretations. First, Paul might be referring simply to God’s revelation of Christ to Paul, with the preposition ἐν reinforcing the dative ending and indicating that Paul is the indirect object of the clause.112 Second, ἐν might entail its more common locative nuance (“in”), emphasizing the inward quality of Paul’s apprehension of the revelation, though not necessarily to the exclusion of a tangible, outward event.113 Third and less likely, the preposition might carry an instrumental sense (“by” or “through”), so that Paul is designated as the vessel for displaying Christ to the nations.114 Whatever the interpretation, the clause reiterates that Paul beheld Christ in a special act of revelation during his journey to Damascus. The content of this revelation will be examined more closely later in this chapter.

The purpose for God’s revelation to Paul is stated simply as preaching Christ among the Gentiles. Paul thus attributes the source of his Gentile mission to his Damascus experience. This focus on the Gentiles is repeated in Gal 2:2, 7, 8. Central to Paul’s self-concept is his divinely bestowed calling to bring the gospel to the Gentiles.

Less explicit allusions to the Damascus road event are found elsewhere in the undisputed letters.115 Among these passages 1 Cor 9:1 and 15:8 most likely refer to Paul’s Damascus road encounter. Both references are brief. In 9:1, Paul’s purpose is to supplement the description of his apostleship. His mention of seeing the Lord is tied closely to his identity as an apostle. His vision of the Lord most likely points to his experience on the road to Damascus. In 1 Cor 15:8 Paul contends that the risen Christ appeared to him, just as he had to other apostles. The claim once again is used to establish the basis of Paul’s apostleship. This comment generates a recollection of Paul’s past as a persecutor, along with gratitude for God’s grace in calling him despite that past (1 Cor 15:9–10). Given the similar collection of themes in Gal 1:13–16, this passage is best interpreted as a reference to Paul’s Damascus transformation. Both of these passages support the notion that much of Paul’s self-perception as an apostle and minister stems from his certainty of having met with Christ unexpectedly on the way to Damascus.

God’s Grace Shown in Paul’s Calling and Ministry

As seen already in Gal 1:13–15 and 1 Cor 15:9–10, Paul marvels at God’s gracious selection of him as an apostle, in spite of his history as a persecutor of the church. In Gal 1:13–14, Paul submits both his opposition to the church and his zealous commitment to Judaism as evidence of his being a surprising choice for God’s selection for Christian ministry.116 The mention of grace in Gal 1:15 underscores the point that God’s calling was totally unmerited and unprovoked by Paul’s track record. Galatians 1:23–24 further supports this understanding, since there Paul’s turnabout from persecutor to advocate is cause for surprise and results in crediting God for the change. The focus on grace in Gal 1:15 supports the larger argument of the divine origin of Paul’s gospel and apostleship.

The passage in 1 Cor 15:9–10 illustrates a similar point, with the first two of three references to grace signifying Paul’s unanticipated reception of his apostolic ministry. Paul’s first reflection on God’s grace in 15:10a is provoked by a recollection of his unworthiness as an apostle, based on his prior attempts to hinder God’s work (1 Cor 15:9). A second mention of grace in 15:10a refers back to this grace of calling. But then an additional feature of God’s grace to Paul is shown to arise in Paul’s ongoing ministry in 15:10b. God’s selection of Paul has been vindicated in the results of his ministry, which in turn is attributed to God’s work through Paul. God’s grace thus serves to launch Paul’s ministry and to give it success.

Paul also highlights God’s grace of calling Paul to ministry in passages other than those explicitly concerned with the Damascus road event. In Gal 2:9, the apostles in Jerusalem are reported to have acknowledged God’s grace in Paul’s calling. Though Paul does associate grace with salvation elsewhere (Gal 1:6; 2:21; 5:4; 1 Cor 1:4; 2 Cor 4:15; 6:1; 8:9; Rom 5:2, 15, 17), this is an instance in which Paul connects grace with his ministry mandate.117 The preceding verses contend that Paul has been entrusted with the gospel to the uncircumcised (Gal 2:7) and that his ministry resembles Peter’s apostleship (2:8), so the topic of Paul’s ministry is clearly in view. In particular, Paul’s ministry is oriented towards the Gentiles (2:8–9). Paul describes his ministry to the Gentiles as a product of God’s grace.

In 1 Cor 3:10 Paul uses a phrase resembling the one from Gal 2:9 (κατὰ τὴν χάριν τὴν δοθεῖσαν μοι) to describe his labor of ministry. This occurrence reflects Paul’s propensity to give God the credit for any constructive service Paul accomplishes (see also Rom 15:18; 1 Cor 15:10; 2 Cor 1:12). This suggests that for Paul, though grace often indicates his calling in contrast to his past as a persecutor, in some settings it highlights the source of Paul’s ongoing ministry success. This latter aspect of grace is also tied closely to giftedness in ministry (see Rom 12:6). The reference to a foundation (θεμέλιος) sheds additional light on Paul’s specific ministry contribution and gift. He views his calling in terms of breaking new ground, which is consistent with a Gentile-oriented ministry (see 2 Cor 10:14–16; Rom 15:20).118 In short, the reference to grace in this verse emphasizes God as the source of Paul’s success, and foundational ministry (especially to the Gentiles) as the essence of his calling.

Related to the grace behind ministry success is the grace for personal endurance in the midst of hardship in Phil 1:7. Grace appears to be applied specifically to a ministry context in this passage, according to Paul’s reference to his imprisonment and defense and confirmation of the gospel. The description of the Philippians being “co-sharers” with Paul of God’s grace in this ministry context suggests that through the Philippians’ support of Paul they are becoming sharers with Paul in the grace he experiences in his ministry. Most likely then, the grace in view here is not the grace of salvation but the grace upholding Paul (along with the Philippians) in ministry.119 Paul once again recognizes that God’s support is essential for helping him carry out his ministry.

Romans 1:5 exhibits a likely relationship between God’s grace and Paul’s calling. Grace and apostleship are paired together and described as having been received through Christ. It is likely that Paul intends to characterize the grace of his ministry under the broader category of the endowment of gifts to all believers.120 Paul’s specific gift is carried out in the ministry of apostleship. The stated purpose for this endowment of grace is to foster the obedience of faith among the Gentiles. Coupled with Rom 1:13, Paul insinuates that the scope of his Gentile ministry encompasses a sense of stewardship for Gentile congregations that did not originate from his ministry.121 Nothing indicates that Paul has his misguided past in view here, as is the case in Gal 1:13–16 and 1 Cor 15:9–10.

Unlike the instance in Rom 1:5, the grace in Rom 12:3 is restricted to Paul alone. Paul draws on his gracious calling in order to deliver a direct and authoritative challenge to his readers. This reference to grace has the effect of reminding the Romans of both Paul’s apostolic authority and his unworthiness to have received that calling.122 At the same time, Paul then proceeds to affirm the similar grace working among the Roman believers (Rom 12:6–8), as they exercise their gifts in ministry.123 For Paul, the experience of grace is not limited to his own ministry, yet grace is manifested uniquely in his ministry, based on the specific calling he received from God.

Later in Romans (15:15–16), Paul once again connects grace with his authoritative stance towards his readers.124 Paul presents this reception of the grace of God as his basis for exhorting his readers. He perceives that this grace has been given for the sake of his ministry to the Gentiles. Paul draws upon his gracious calling, given by God, for ministry to Gentiles as the basis of his confident authority towards them. In the process of exercising his authority towards the Gentile Christians in Rome, Paul demonstrates his assumption that his ministry extends to all Gentiles, and the wording of Rom 15:16 confirms this perspective. Using the language of priestly service, Paul explains that his offering to God consists of the fruit of his ministry among the Gentiles (Rom 15:16). This is further echoed in Rom 15:18, where Paul attributes the “obedience of the Gentiles” to the work of Christ through Paul’s ministry. God’s grace compels Paul to fulfill this ministry with all diligence (Rom 15:18–19). Thus, the operation of God’s grace in Paul is seen in effective ministry to Gentiles, such as those believers meeting together in the Gentile city of Rome. In conclusion, God’s grace for Paul both establishes the legitimacy of his ministry to Gentile believers and empowers him for ongoing service to the Gentiles.

The sum of these verses on God’s grace reveals several facets of God’s gracious endowment of ministry to Paul. First, in several cases grace is mentioned in the context of God’s dramatic reversal of Paul’s orientation towards God’s work. Second, grace is used to refer to the divine origins of Paul’s apostolic calling and thus carries a strong connotation of authority. Third, grace at times refers to the divine source of Paul’s ongoing ministry fruitfulness. Fourth, Paul’s ministry received by grace is often tied to the goal of reaching the Gentiles. Finally, the grace received brings with it Paul’s obligation to carry out his ministry faithfully. In chapter 5 of this book the emphasis on grace in Eph 3:1–13 will be analyzed in relation to these passages and the perspectives on grace reflected in them.

Revelation and Mystery

Closely associated with Paul’s Damascus experience and calling is God’s revelation of the mystery of the gospel. As part of his calling to ministry, Paul believed that he had received divine revelation about God’s saving work through Christ (see Gal 1:11–12). Paul felt obligated to impart this revealed insight, which he sometimes called a “mystery” (μυστήριον), to those he taught. As a minister, Paul was not operating according to his own whims but was constrained by the calling God had initiated and the truth God had revealed to him and other chosen ministers.

Because of the frequent appearance of μυστήριον in Colossians and Ephesians and the charge by some that the sense of the word has undergone modification when compared to Paul’s original understanding, Paul’s use of this term in his undisputed letters will receive extended treatment in this section.125 Though Paul follows no fixed pattern in discussing the mystery in his undisputed letters, the composite testimony derived from the various passages provides a template against which to evaluate the relevant passages from Colossians and Ephesians.

Paul discloses revelation using the language of mystery in 1 Cor 2:7; 4:1; 15:51; Rom 11:25; 16:25–26.126 The term also arises in 1 Cor 13:2 and 14:2, but within those contexts, Paul speaks of mysteries broadly as a description of divine knowledge, and the topic of Paul’s calling is not under investigation. The term also surfaces frequently in the disputed Pauline letters (Eph 1:9; 3:3, 4, 9; 6:19; Col 1:26, 27; 2:2; 4:3; 2 Thess 2:7; 1 Tim 3:9, 16), though these verses will not be considered in this section. The topic of Paul’s understanding of the revealed mystery has attracted extended treatment in works from recent decades, with the consensus position being that Paul’s concept of mystery derives from the Jewish conception of divine truth to which humans gain access only through divine revelation.127 The content of the mystery is related particularly to Christ’s death and resurrection, along with the saving benefits of Christ’s work in the lives of believing Jews and Gentiles.

Sometimes Paul incorporates the idea of mystery in his letters to underscore the entire breadth of Christ’s work and its implications. This is the case in 1 Cor 2:7; 4:1, and Rom 16:25–26.

In 1 Cor 2:1–16, Paul relates the mystery to God’s wisdom, a wisdom that can only be discerned by the Spirit among the mature. This “wisdom in mystery” consists of a proclaimed message about Christ and his cross, by which believers are assured of an eschatological victory. In 1 Cor 2:7 Paul enlists the concept of mystery to further describe divine wisdom.128 Bockmuehl observes parallels between this wording and that which is found in Jewish literature, concluding that 1 Cor 2:7 conforms to the Jewish notion of mystery as that of God’s disclosed salvific plans.129 Following ἐν μυστηρίῳ is τὴν ἀποκεκρυμμένην, which modifies either the entire phrase (θεοῦ σοφίαν ἐν μυστηρίῳ) or simply σοφίαν. Either way, in the concept of hiddenness, Paul begins to unpack what it means that God’s wisdom is ἐν μυστηρίῳ.130 God’s “wisdom in mystery” involves a hidden dimension, because God has withheld the knowledge of its contents.

But does Paul in this passage understand truth to be concealed with regard to time or to audience, or perhaps to both? Some scholars make the case that the revealed/hidden division in this passage separates the spiritually discerning from the spiritually dull, not present disclosure of truth from past hiddenness.131 Paul makes this chief concern clear in the contrast presented in 1 Cor 2:6–16. Paul begins by specifying that God’s wisdom has been designed for reception by the spiritually mature (οἱ τέλειοι).132 Paul then expounds upon the differentiation between those who reject and accept God’s message. God’s revealed wisdom through Christ has not been ascertained by the powerful of this age (1 Cor 2:8), as demonstrated by their crucifixion of the Lord. In contrast to the worldly representatives’ oblivion to God’s truth, believers apprehend God’s revelation in Christ by God’s Spirit (1 Cor 2:10).133 Paul further specifies the Spirit’s role in disclosing truth in 2:11–13.134 The primary contrast between the spiritually perceptive and the spiritually blind is once more articulated in 2:14–16. In view of the impressive contextual support for this perspective, it is likely that this demarcation is the main topic in the context.

This conclusion, however, does not rule out all concern for an underlying pattern that distinguishes past hiddenness from present disclosure. Paul’s discussion of the gospel here assumes an unveiling of this mystery in the present age, even if the main emphasis remains on the Spirit’s work in the process.135 It is clear that Paul sees himself as a mouthpiece for announcing God’s wisdom in mystery in this passage (see the first person language of 2:4–7, as well as Paul’s mention of preaching as the vehicle of salvation in 1:21). Finally, a marked transition from past hiddenness to present revelation is reinforced in the contrast between truth concealed in 2:9 and truth revealed in 2:10. Therefore, God’s wisdom in mystery is revealed in Paul’s generation through the preaching about Christ and the cross.

Paul’s mystery is based on the cross but also points to eschatological horizons. Paul’s thesis starting in 1 Cor 1:18 has been that God’s wisdom in the cross represents his power to bring eternal salvation to believers.136 Paul continues a discussion of the eschatological benefits of God’s wisdom in 1 Cor 2:7b. Since before the beginning of time God designed his work in Christ with a view towards the believer’s ultimate benefit. In contrast to believers who will possess eschatological blessings in Christ, the rulers of the age have crucified the Lord of glory (1 Cor 2:8). In other words, they tragically appraised Christ as worthless even though he was actually the power of God and the wisdom of God (1:24) and was himself destined for glory.137 Paul captures the beauty and eschatological orientation of this divine and hidden wisdom with a free rendition of one or more OT passages in 1 Cor 2:9.138

In this passage as a whole Paul’s description of wisdom ἐν μυστηρίῳ encompasses the spiritually perceived significance of Christ’s saving work on the cross (1 Cor 2:2; 1:18). Though Paul proclaims God’s eternal wisdom as definitively located in Christ and his crucifixion, it is the reception and understanding of this message among others that Paul discusses at greater length. The idea of mystery in this passage is tied closely to wisdom, the work of the Spirit, the significance of the cross, and the promise of glory for the believer. The subtle implication of the passage is that Paul is a spokesperson responsible for proclaiming God’s mystery.

In 1 Cor 4:1, the plural form “mysteries” surfaces in a passage describing Paul’s stewardship from God. The significance of the plural form of the word is difficult to ascertain, since later occurrences in the plural may not be relevant to the meaning in 4:1.139 The suggestion that the plural accords well with a steward’s responsibility to oversee multiple areas is as good as any.140 The immediate context depicting Paul’s ministry in 1 Cor 4:1 suggests that the mysteries relate to the content of Paul’s gospel.141 But the passage highlights the enactment of Paul’s ministry rather than the content of his message, so Paul may speak of mysteries generally here, without any specific component of the mysteries squarely in view. Instead, Paul refers to any truth relevant to God’s will, as revealed to Paul and other ministers of the gospel.

The mysteries reflect the intersection of the divine and human spheres. On the one hand, the mysteries of 4:1 are regarded as God’s mysteries, so they are divine in origin. On the other hand, the mysteries are truths that are now granted to human messengers. The title of steward (οἰκονόμος) indicates that God’s mysteries are things that have been entrusted to Paul.142 This concept supports Paul’s contention that he must answer to God for the faithfulness of his service (1 Cor 4:2–5). Paul elaborates on this idea of stewardship later in 1 Cor 9:16–17, where he brings attention to his obligation to please God in his service. In short, 1 Cor 4:1 portrays Paul’s relationship to the mysteries of God without divulging the exact contents of the mysteries. Paul identifies himself as one of the appointed custodians of God’s divine revelation.

The third passage yielding a broad meaning for mystery is found in Rom 16:25–26. Many scholars dispute the authenticity of the doxology (16:25–27).143 External and internal factors must be taken into account when making judgments about authenticity. With regard to manuscript evidence, skeptics of the Pauline origin of the doxology point primarily to its inconsistent placement in various ancient manuscripts. But while the witnesses preserve different locations for 16:25–27, the material is still present in the vast majority of extant manuscripts and versions.144 The list of witnesses is particularly impressive for the doxology’s location at the end of Rom 16.145 Definitive conclusions for what led to the relocation, subtraction, or addition of the doxology are elusive.146 Any plausible reconstruction of the textual history of the ending of Romans that assumes the originality of the doxology is not without problems.147 The lack of a plausible explanation for what gave rise to the diverse manuscript testimony if the original form of Romans was Rom 1:1—16:27 casts some degree of doubt on the Pauline origins of Rom 16:25–26.148

From an analysis of the style and wording of the doxology, arguments may be put forward for both positions. On the one hand, certain verbal and thematic correspondences between 1:1–5 and 16:25–26 create a sense of coherence in the letter as a whole, suggesting that 16:25–27 was an essential part of the original letter. The connections include the gospel, the prophets and the Scriptures, the obedience of faith, and ministry among or unto all the Gentiles. On the other hand, the benediction of 16:20 (or 16:24) is a more typical way for Paul to end a letter, and some of the vocabulary in the doxology is considered non-Pauline.149 Arguments from language and style are notoriously subjective, and the presuppositions regarding the dating of other Pauline letters make the issue in this case especially problematic.150 When all is considered, the support from early manuscripts and the thematic connections that point towards authenticity are somewhat counteracted by likely reconstructions of the passage’s history. Given the resulting doubts about the authenticity of the passage, its contribution to Paul’s thought will be assessed with caution.

The passage portrays a gospel that is revealed in the unveiling of the mystery. The essence of the gospel (εὐαγγέλιον) and Christian preaching (κήρυγμα) is summarized by a detailed depiction of the revealed mystery of Christ. According to the passage, the previously hidden mystery has now been revealed. This characterization is consistent with Paul’s description of mystery in 1 Corinthians and elsewhere in Romans, though the division between past hiddenness and present revelation is more marked here.

In the bulk of Rom 16:26, a description of the reception of the mystery is put forward, with the main assertion that the mystery has been made known. The author submits that the grasp of the mystery’s significance arrived through the prophetic Scriptures151 and according to God’s authoritative decree. This pairing introduces a tension that fits within the wider Pauline balance between continuity and discontinuity with regards to the gospel’s relationship to the OT Scriptures.152 As Rom 16:26 continues, it is indicated that the purpose of the revelation of the mystery is to engender the obedience of faith among all the Gentiles, echoing language from Rom 1:5.153 Such wording in Rom 16:25–26 shows that the revealed mystery entails a specific application for Gentiles, which is consistent with Paul’s apostleship to the Gentiles (Rom 11:13). On the whole, the passage portrays a revealed mystery that is equivalent to Paul’s gospel and preaching. By divine initiative and in continuity with past revelation, the mystery is unveiled for the purpose of fostering faith among the Gentiles.

In contrast to the all-encompassing descriptions of mystery in the passages above, 1 Cor 15:51 and Rom 11:25 incorporate the term μυστήριον to highlight one aspect of the broader notion of mystery.154 In 1 Cor 15:51 Paul attests to the mystery of the bodily resurrection. As in previous passages, the mystery is understood to be revealed in Paul’s proclamation of it. It is no longer inaccessible knowledge.155 Once again, the mystery has continuity with past revelation, since the bodily resurrection was referred to or alluded to in passages such as Dan 12:2, Isa 25:8; 26:19, and Hos 13:14.156 But Paul’s talk of mystery signals that he is now offering a more complete understanding of the resurrection. The resurrection, which is patterned after Christ’s death and resurrection and is tied to Christ’s return, has implication for both those who are dead and those who are alive at Christ’s parousia.157 Specifically, since flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of God (15:50), living believers, along with the dead, will receive glorified bodies at Christ’s return.158

Two observations are in order about how this passage relates to other mystery sections. First, the eschatological dimension of mystery in this passage corresponds to the eschatological focus in 1 Cor 2:6–16. Second, in comparison to the general uses of mystery discussed earlier, the mystery here transmits a specific detail of God’s revealed plans, but this important detail is still based on the central events of Christ’s life, past and future.

In Rom 11:25–27, Paul imparts the mystery that for a season God is including the Gentiles in his plan of salvation before consummating the fulfillment of his promises to Israel.159 This is presented as truth that the readers had not previously grasped. Though the broad background of God’s salvation through Christ is present in these verses, it is the specific timing and direction of God’s work that is magnified.160 In particular, the mystery involves the place of Jews and Gentiles in God’s saving plans. Paul sees the mission to the Gentiles being brought to completion before salvation for Israel is realized.161 God’s promises to the Jewish people are not eradicated but instead facilitated by ministry progress among the Gentiles.162 Once again, Paul emphasizes continuity with God’s redemptive patterns from the past, using a conflation of OT passages to support his assertions. But it is the reality of God’s intervention through Christ in human history that brings the order and timing of God’s work into clearer focus. In addition, as a chosen herald of God’s revelation, Paul plays a part in the revelation of the mystery by speaking authoritatively about matters that were previously hidden from view. Once again, the passage discusses events with eschatological significance.

The overall testimony of the passages depicting the revelation of the mystery in relation to Paul’s ministry is that Paul viewed himself as an agent of God in proclaiming the full implications of Christ’s advent, death, resurrection, and return. Paul draws upon patterns of expectation shaped by the Old Testament but contends that the clear significance of God’s work in history has been hidden in the eternal plans of God until God has disclosed them by means of the revelation of Christ, the ministry of approved messengers such as Paul, and the work of the Spirit in illuminating God’s truth to believers. 1 Corinthians 2:6–16 relates the mystery to God’s wisdom, future glory, and the work of the Spirit, while 1 Cor 4:1 attaches Paul’s stewardship of the mystery to the picture. Several instances examine the eschatological aspect of the mystery. From Rom 11:25–27 and, if it is admitted into evidence, Rom 16:25–26, the inclusion of the Gentiles in these redemptive plans is one component of the revelatory content of the mystery.

The Old Testament Foundation to Paul’s Ministry to the Gentiles

Even though Paul’s encounter with Christ and his reception of the revealed mystery occurred suddenly and without any expectation on Paul’s part, his ministry was nonetheless rooted in Israel’s past. Paul’s self-understanding is grounded in the OT background of the ministry of the servant figure of Isaiah 40–66. Paul confirms this backdrop most explicitly in Gal 1:15–16, 2 Cor 6:2, and Rom 15:21.163

To begin, Gal 1:15–16 is shaped by the consecration language of Isa 49:1, 5–6. In the literary context of Gal 1–2, Paul is defending the divine origins of his calling and his gospel. His service to God is not a result of his own choice and initiative but of God’s sovereign selection of him before birth. This selection corresponds to the consecration of the servant of Isaiah.

The connections from Gal 1 to Isa 49:1–6 are stronger than to Jer 1:5, which speaks of Jeremiah’s prophetic call. In addition, there are many more major references elsewhere in Paul’s letters to Isa 40–66 than to Jeremiah, so the primary influence on Paul’s thinking is likely Isa 49.164 In particular, the phrase ἐκ κοιλίας μητρός μου from Gal 1:15 parallels the LXX reading of Isa 49:1. This is followed in Gal 1:15 by a form of καλέω, a verb that also occurs after ἐκ κοιλίας μητρός μου in Isa 49:1.165 A look at the broader context of Isaiah 49 will reveal other ways Paul likely drew upon the passage.

In the overall structure of Isaiah 40–66, a shift in directions occurs at the beginning of chapter 49.166 This turn is seen clearly in the changing portrayal of the servant. No longer a mere “passive servant,” as in the preceding chapters, he is “that servant who was introduced at the beginning of the previous section (42:1–9), who will be God’s agent to bring his covenant to the people and his justice to the nations.”167 This servant no longer appears to be equated with the people of Israel as a whole, but rather is an individual representing Israel.168 Israel has failed in its role as a servant, so the text introduces God’s specially chosen servant who will fulfill Israel’s role.169

Chapter 49 begins with an address to “islands” and “peoples from afar,” which foreshadows the focus on the nations in 49:6–7.170 The speaker proceeds to emphasize his calling as Yahweh’s servant (“the LORD called me from the womb; from the body of my mother he named me”), in wording that echoes previous similar occurrences in earlier chapters (Isa 41:8–9; 42:1; 43:1,10; 44:1,21,24; 45:4). The nature of the servant’s ministry is reemphasized in verse 2, with a focus on the mouth of the servant as his key weapon. Thus the servant’s role as a herald of God’s message is at the forefront of this passage.

Verse 3 shows the ultimate purpose of the servant’s ministry: as God’s servant, he was appointed to put God’s glory on display. A representative function of the servant is in view here, with a chosen individual standing in for Israel, who had failed in living out its calling to glorify God.171 The ongoing reality of Israel’s failure to heed God’s message provoked the servant to discouragement, as reflected in verse 4. The language of the LXX here (κενῶς ἐκοπίασα) is most probably echoed in a number of Paul’s letters.172 The contrast between a glorious calling and lack of visible success prompted the servant to renew his trust in God and his obedience to God’s calling (“my reward is with my God”).

Verse 5 reiterates the servant’s prior calling from verse 1 (“the Lord, who formed me from the womb to be his servant”) and also expands on it. In this verse the new identity of the servant as an individual rather than corporate Israel emerges most clearly. The servant’s prophetic ministry is to be directed to Israel, with the goal of bringing back and gathering Israel to Yahweh. At the end of the verse, the servant responds in gratitude and wonder about the nature of his calling. The significance of the servant is found in his role as God’s chosen instrument.

The servant’s calling is not limited to Israel but is expanded to encompass the nations in verse 6. The term “salvation,” so common in Isa 40–66, is now extended to both Israel and the nations. Yahweh is entrusting the servant with a ministry of salvation that will stretch to the ends of the earth. The precise relationship of the servant to God’s salvation is rendered differently in various translations.173 The resulting meaning includes possibilities spanning from the servant carrying the message of salvation to the servant embodying salvation in his person. An interpretation on the latter end of the spectrum draws support from the servant’s role as more than a messenger, as displayed in 42:1–7, and from the brief reference in 49:7 to the servant being the focal point of a watching world in the midst of his humiliation and exaltation.174 This theme receives more extended treatment in Isa 52:13–53:12.175 On the other hand, there is enough ambiguity with the clause to allow for a more general understanding of the servant as the bearer of God’s saving work and message.176

Paul’s call to ministry in Galatians 1 parallels the experience of the servant of Isa 49:1–6 in many ways. As was seen previously, Gal 1:11–16 Paul contends for the divine source of Paul’s calling by incorporating wording similar to what is repeated in Isa 49:1, 5. Beyond the similarities in wording are conceptual affinities. Paul’s calling entails a ministry of proclamation of the gospel (Gal 1:6–9, 11), resembling the “sharp sword” of the mouth that characterizes the servant’s appointment (Isa 49:2). Paul recognizes that his sole concern is to please God with his ministry (Gal 1:10), just like the servant looks to God for his reward (49:4). Paul’s ministry does not exclude the Jews but reaches beyond them to the Gentiles (Gal 1:16; 2:2, 8–9), in keeping with the expanded scope of the servant’s ministry (Isa 49:6).177 Paul still recognized Christ’s work as the centerpiece of God’s saving action for humanity (as indicated in Gal 1:4) and understood Christ’s person and work as the content of his message (Gal 1:7, 16). But Paul so closely identified himself with Christ (see Gal 2:20) that he appears to have adopted the servant mission of Isa 49:1–6, though this calling is mediated through Christ’s own unique sacrifice.

As seen from the preceding discussion, the prophetic call of the OT as represented particularly in the commission of the servant of Isa 49:1–6 shaped Paul’s expectation of what his ministry encompassed. Paul draws from Isaiah 49 once again in 2 Corinthians 6:2. The analysis of Isa 49:1–6 already provided applies to 2 Corinthians 6 as well. The additional relevance of Isaiah 49 is explored beginning in Isa 49:7.

Isaiah 49:7 raises the prospect of suffering as an essential aspect of the servant’s ministry, in addition to a calling already including proclamation (seen especially from 49:2).178 The servant’s humiliation, which is not developed extensively in this passage, is shown in a reversal of fortunes to result in glory, since surrounding rulers will ultimately pay homage to God’s servant.179 The conclusion of the verse with a reminder that God has chosen the servant demonstrates that the servant’s certain future of exaltation is based on his certain calling. Until that day of honor, the conjunction of Isa 49:2 and 49:7 foreshadows the fact that suffering and proclamation are harmonious elements of the servant’s ministry.

The next verses (8–13) are grouped with the preceding ones (1–7) through the connecting formula “Thus says the LORD.”180 At the hinge point of verse 8, Yahweh announces his intention to strengthen his servant for the purpose of bestowing salvation, with the effects of the salvation transforming both Israel and the nations of the world (v.6–7, 12–13). In 49:8a, Goldingay observes that the “religious freight” of the phrases “favorable time” and “day of salvation” is represented in the terms “favorable” and “salvation,” rather than on the time markers.181 The verbs exist in the perfect tense in the Hebrew, and may be characterized as “prophetic perfects”182 or “perfects of certainty,”183 indicating the promised realization of actions that are yet to unfold. Following verse 8a, the message proclaimed through the servant is couched in vivid language that may be grouped with the new exodus imagery found throughout Isa 40–66.184 In view is God’s glorious intervention in the land and in the lives of the people. The section ends in a universal call to praise with a mention of comfort that ties the passage to the greater themes of Isa 40–66, which began with a call of comfort from God.

Paul’s use of Isa 49:8 in 2 Cor 6:2 fulfills two aims. First, 2 Cor 6:2 reflects that through Christ’s death and resurrection, the day of salvation promised by God in Isaiah 40–66 has arrived, demanding full reception.185 In the events of the death and resurrection of Christ, Paul sees the fulfillment of God’s plans to redeem Israel and reconcile the world to himself.186 This is supported earlier in the discourse, when Paul uses the time markers μηκέτι (v.15), άπὸ τοῦ νῦν and οὐκέτι (v.16), the pair of clauses τὰ ἀρχαῖα παρῆλθεν, ἰδοὺ γέγονεν καινά and the announcement of καινὴ κτίσις (v.17) to signal the abrupt change taking place in history as a result of Christ’s death and resurrection.187

Second, 2 Cor 6:2 confirms that Paul understands his ministry through the lens of Isaiah 49. The broader context supports this as well. Paul’s calling conforms to the servant’s calling, since he serves God (5:11–13) and is motivated by Christ’s love (5:14). His message of salvation aligns with the servant’s message to Israel and the nations, since he proclaims that God is bringing about a new creation by reconciling the world (Jews and Gentiles) to himself through the forgiveness of sins (5:17–21). His discouragement over laboring in vain (6:1) corresponds to the servant’s.188 Finally, Paul’s experience of God’s support in the midst of suffering and dishonor follows the servant’s pattern (6:8–10).

Though Paul is related typologically to the servant it is only through the transforming presence and pattern of Christ.189 Christ is the genuine fulfillment of the servant of Isaiah, especially in reference to the saving effects of his suffering for the sins of the people in Isa 52:13–52:12. Paul identifies himself with the servant of Isaiah, but even more he identifies himself with Christ–with his death, and with his resurrection.190 This is clear from the immediate context in 2 Cor 5:14–17, as well as from other passages in 2 Corinthians such as 1:5 and 4:7–11. Paul’s identification with the servant of Isaiah is filtered through the person and work of Christ.191

In Rom 15:21, the distinction between Paul as the messenger and Christ as the sacrificial servant is clearer. Paul quotes Isa 52:15 to support his aspiration to reach Gentiles with the gospel of Christ. The verse is situated in the larger context of Isa 52:13–53:12, where the subject is the suffering and vindication of God’s servant. Oswalt identifies the two main themes of the passage as being “the contrast between the servant’s exaltation and his humiliation and suffering, and the contrast between what people thought about the Servant and what was really the case.”192 In Isa 52:13–15 in particular, the prophet describes the reaction of nations and kings to the surprising status of God’s servant.193 They will be “startled” and will close their mouths in astonishment.194 The comparative construction in the MT suggests that the response to the servant’s exaltation (52:15) will mirror the reaction people had to the servant’s troubling humiliation (52:14).195 Chapter 53 then reports the suffering to be endured by the servant prior to being exalted.

In Rom 15:21, Paul adopts the wording of the LXX, though there may have been a rearrangement of words, with ὄψονται being placed at the front of the phrase for emphasis.196 The LXX has a different emphasis from what is found in the original Hebrew in Isa 52:15b, but the overall point is similar in both places: unexpected truth about the servant’s ultimate destiny will be acknowledged by those who were previously unaware of his outcome.197

Paul picks up this theme as an expression of his determination to proclaim the good news of Christ to those who have not heard it. Paul’s prior reference to Christ in 15:20 implies that he identifies Christ as the servant described in Isa 52:13—53:12.198 On the basis of this correlation Paul makes a parallel between the announcement of the servant’s exaltation and the spread of the good news of Christ. Even though in Isa 52:15 the news is not explicitly positive for the nations, for Paul, the message is interpreted as good news for the nations because of the inclusion of the Gentiles in the work of Christ.199 Isaiah 42:6, 49:6, 51:4 are probable grounds within Isaiah for Paul’s conviction. In those passages, the servant’s appointed ministry to Israel is promised to bring the nations into relationship with God.200

But why does Paul envision the participation of a human agent in the process of disseminating the news of the suffering servant’s triumph and glorification? Two excerpts from the material surrounding Isa 52:13–15 surface as possible catalysts for Paul’s perspective. Earlier in Isa 52, the prophet extols the virtues of the messengers of God’s good news of salvation (Isa 52:7). Paul had already quoted this verse earlier in his letter to the Romans (10:15). Immediately following this reference (in 10:16), Paul cites Isa 53:1 as an expression of the lack of positive response to the message of good news. The passage quoted in Rom 15:21 (Isa 52:15) is enclosed by verses pointing to a message delivered by human agents.201 Paul assumes this role of a messenger by “fulfilling” the gospel of Christ to Gentiles spread around the Roman world (Rom 15:19).202

A survey of the OT contribution to Paul’s ministry mindset reveals that more than any other section of Scripture Isa 40–66 played a significant role in shaping Paul’s self-perception. The picture in that section of a divinely appointed messenger charged with both announcing with words and manifesting through sacrificial actions the salvation of God to Jews and Gentiles was well suited to Paul’s understanding of his own ministry. Paul recognized the unique fulfillment of God’s saving plans in the person of Christ, and through his own calling entered into association with Christ in the challenge of bearing hardship for the sake of God’s mission and with the hope of God’s approbation.

Paul and the Other Apostles

Next is the topic of apostolic authority and Paul’s relationship to other apostles and tradition. Key passages include Gal 1:1, 17; 2:1–10; 1 Thess 2:6–7; 1 Cor 1:1; 9:1–6; 15:1–11; 2 Cor 1:1; 11:5; 12:11–12; Rom 1:1; 11:13. Paul speaks with a combination of authority and humility when discussing his apostolic calling. He recognizes the legacy of the original apostles and other apostles while defending the validity of his own apostleship.203 This balance between independence and common ground in his standing with other apostles sets the standard for later presentations of this dynamic in the letters examined in chapters three, four, and five of the book.

In several of his letters, Paul identifies himself as an apostle from the outset (Gal 1:1; 1 Cor 1:1; 2 Cor 1:1; Rom 1:1). The opening in Gal 1:1 is the most forceful assertion of Paul’s apostleship. The divine authorization behind Paul’s apostleship is the intended message, and the antithetical construction (οὐκ ἀπ’ ἀνθρώπων οὐδὲ δι’ ἀνθρώπου ἀλλὰ διὰ ’Ιησοῦ καὶ θεοῦ πατρός) drives home the contention more powerfully. This wording is consistent with the argument Paul makes throughout the rest of Gal 1. The opening statements in 1 Cor 1:1 and 2 Cor 1:1 are similar to one another. In both cases, Paul’s apostleship is placed in a genitive relationship with Jesus Christ (or Christ Jesus) and is qualified as being dependent upon the will of God. This qualification represents a different way of stressing the divine origins of Paul’s apostleship, and the emphasis is reinforced in 1 Cor 1:1 by the possible inclusion of κλητός before ἀπόστολος.204 In Rom 1:1, Paul submits that he is called as an apostle (κλητὸς ἀπόστολος), which communicates the fact that God is the source of Paul’s ministry and authority. Paul’s apostleship is followed immediately by his perception of being set apart for the gospel, demonstrating the close association between his apostleship and the gospel.

Taking the greetings from the four letters as a group, it is likely that Paul mentions his apostleship at the beginning of the letters for three main reasons. First, Paul saw his apostleship as central to his identity. Second, the divine bestowal of his apostleship serves as his basis for addressing the churches in an authoritative manner. Third, Paul’s apostleship supports the validity of his gospel, which is always a chief concern in his letters.205 Beyond these three shared characteristics, questions about Paul’s apostleship and his gospel continue to surface in Galatians, so the initial identification of Paul as an apostle foreshadows a primary theme in the letter.

After offering his gospel as the standard against any corrupt imitation (Gal 1:6–9) and as part of a sustained defense of the divine origin of his gospel in Gal 1:6—2:10, Paul provides a brief glimpse of his standing relative to the other apostles in Gal 1:17 when he mentions visiting the “apostles who were before me” (τοὺς πρὸ ἐμοῦ ἀποστόλους). Bruce is correct in observing that the phrase “is temporal; it does not denote precedence in status.”206 Instead, the phrase groups Paul with the other apostles, stressing the common standing among them.207 Thus Paul is neither detached from nor inferior to the other apostles. For Paul, independence entails possessing an apostolic legitimacy that does not rest on the authorization of other Christian leaders but does keep him aligned with their mission and message.

As Paul proceeds to develop his argument of independence from, yet association with, the other apostles, he recounts in Gal 2:1–10 a meeting in Jerusalem with leaders of the early church, including James, Cephas, and John (Gal 2:2, 6, 9). Paul’s purpose was to present his gospel to them in order to garner their backing of his ministry to the Gentiles. Paul makes a fine distinction between the respected leaders and those who had been opposing Paul’s ministry, insisting that his gospel did not need approval from the latter group (2:2–5). But even with the recognized leaders, Paul takes pains to point out that though they affirmed Paul in his mission, they did not modify or supplement his message (2:6–9). The ultimate authorization for Paul’s ministry and gospel rests with God alone. Even the leaders themselves are reported to have acknowledged the divine design of Paul’s ministry, since they identified both that God had entrusted Paul with the gospel to the uncircumcised and that this commission was evidence of God’s grace to Paul (Gal 2:7–9). All parties involved had affirmed that Paul’s gospel ministry to the Gentiles was on par with Peter’s ministry to the Jews (note the use of the comparative adverb καθώς in 2:7), with Paul using the term apostleship to describe both (2:8). The contribution of this passage to the focus of this book is that it attests to a balance between Paul’s cooperation with the other apostles and his determination to defend his calling as being unconnected to their blessing or the initiative of any human source. While Paul gives the greater emphasis to his independence from the early church’s hierarchy in Gal 1–2, he still associates himself with the other apostles, with the common bond of the gospel tying them together.208

A relatively brief contribution to the topic of Paul’s apostleship occurs in 1 Thess 2:6–7. There, in the middle of his recollection of his ministry to the Thessalonians, Paul connects apostleship with authority.209 Paul’s standing as an apostle carries the potential of acclaim arising from the possession of apostolic authority.210 But out of sincerity of motive and a desire to please God, Paul has bypassed an authoritative approach even though he could have rightfully resorted to this stance. Paul’s language implies that his identity as a minister conformed to the contours of the other apostles of Christ, even though Paul did not always choose to exercise the full rights of his apostleship.

In the next passage of note, 1 Cor 9:1–6, Paul again places his apostleship alongside the ministry of the other apostles. Paul’s broader concern is to present his attitude towards service as a model for the Corinthians to imitate (1 Cor 11:1), so that they will learn to give preference to the needs of others over their own needs (1 Cor 8:1b, 13; 10:24, 33).211 To drive home this principle, Paul describes the way he puts aside his own rights as an apostle for the sake of the people he is serving. The line of thought is an expanded form of what was seen in 1 Thess 2:6–7. First, Paul draws upon his apostleship and his revelation from Christ as potential reasons for exercising his rights in ministry (1 Cor 9:1). Both of these items carry connotations of authority and distinction and help supply Paul a standing equal to that of the other apostles, at least according to a picture of apostleship that is flexible enough to encompass more than just the original twelve apostles. To this list he adds his specific apostolic ministry to the Corinthian church and suggests that the fruitfulness of this ministry confirms Paul’s apostolic calling (9:2). The next step in his argument is to show that he sets aside rights that would be expected to accompany the ministry of apostleship (see 9:12, 15, 19–27). These rights include eating and drinking whatever he desires (with reference to his statements about idolatry in 8:13), getting married, and relying on the financial support of others instead of working (9:4–6). Paul even refers specifically to the marriages of other apostles in order to demonstrate that other apostles exercise these rights (9:5). From the structure and wording of Paul’s argument, it is clear that he considers himself an apostle on par with others designated with that title, and that there is both common ground and independence in Paul’s leadership relationship with the other apostles.

A similar pattern surfaces in 1 Cor 15:1–11. In order to build the doctrine of the believer’s resurrection upon truth already accepted by the Corinthian church, Paul draws upon early Christian tradition (15:3). In 15:1 Paul identifies this tradition as being consistent with his gospel. Paul sees no divergence between his gospel and the core teaching of the church as a whole.

Part of this central teaching Paul had received and proclaimed is a recounting of the resurrection appearances of Christ. The first witnesses listed are Cephas and the other original apostles (15:5), followed by a larger group of disciples, James, and “all of the apostles” (15:6–7).212 Paul then adds himself to this list, placing his own encounter with the risen Christ at the same level as those of the people mentioned previously.213 The sense of Paul’s self-identification as “one untimely born” (ἔκτρωμα) has been interpreted in various ways.214 It may refer to the fact that Christ’s appearance to Paul and his appointment of Paul as an apostle occurred at an atypical time and in an atypical way, since Paul had not seen nor been commissioned by Christ during his earthly ministry.215 Or the term may highlight Paul’s unworthiness because of his persecution of the church.216 In either case, Paul’s history placed him at a perceived disadvantage compared to the other apostles. Paul expands upon this perceived deficiency (note the use of the explanatory γάρ) by emphasizing his unworthiness to be called an apostle (εἰμὶ ὁ ἐλάχιστος τῶν ἀποστόλων ὅ οὐκ εἰμὶ ἱκανὸς καλεῖσθαι ἀπόστολος). This depiction appears at first glance to elevate the other apostles above Paul, but the characterization has less to do with Paul’s current status and more to do with his past actions. Paul confirms this perception by recalling his past as a persecutor of the church and the subsequent grace God bestowed on him in choosing him for apostleship (1 Cor 15:9–10a). The emphasis is on Paul’s surprising inclusion among those called to apostleship.217

In Paul’s present ministry, his pattern of hard and fruitful work, propelled by God’s grace, serves to reinforce Paul’s standing alongside the other apostles (15:10b). God’s surprising choice of Paul as a minister did not bring a deficient outcome (οὐ κενὴ ἐγενήθη), which implies that Paul had enjoyed a fruitful ministry. Paul is thus able to conclude this section of the argument with the assertion that his preaching is equivalent to that of the other apostles (15:11). This passage on the whole reveals an attitude of respect and cooperation towards the other apostles. It also numbers Paul among the apostles. Though Paul’s past should disqualify him from the honor of apostolic ministry, he is able to vouch for the full legitimacy of his apostleship by virtue of Christ’s appearance to him and through appeal to his steadfast and fruitful service enabled by God’s gracious work through him.

The pendulum swings back towards an assertion of Paul’s authority in 2 Cor 11:5. The issue needing defense in 2 Cor 10–13 is that authentic ministry is founded upon God’s powerful work through human weakness, rather than upon the talents of polished and imposing leaders. Paul engages in his opponents’ own foolish style of argument (11:1) by building up his own credentials before setting them aside in favor of God’s use of his suffering and weakness. As part of the preliminary promotion of his authority, Paul contends for his equality with the other apostles in 2 Cor 11:5. Scholars disagree as to whether the (οἱ ὑπερλίαν ἀπόστολοι) in 11:5 (and 12:11) are the same people as the pseudo-apostles of 11:13 (also implied in 11:4). Some scholars, pointing out that the references occur in the same passage, see the two labels as referring to the same false teachers.218 Others discern that the two groups are different.219 The second option is to be preferred, since the two labels are used with different connotations for different purposes. The pseudo-apostles are flatly denounced, while the premier apostles are used in comparison to Paul’s own authority.220 Paul’s argument in 2 Cor 11:4–5 is that the Corinthian believers need to accept his teaching in a way that does justice to his authority. If they receive heterodox teaching with such enthusiasm (11:4, with reference to false apostles), they should welcome the teaching of a genuine apostle all the more (11:5, with reference to legitimate apostles).

Paul revisits the same line of thought in 2 Cor 12:11–12, admitting to resort to foolishness again. The wording of 2 Cor 12:11 practically repeats the wording of 2 Cor 11:5. Paul’s authority should be considered as being on par with the authority of even the most prominent apostles (again most likely corresponding to the leaders of reputation in Gal 2:1–10). Paul supports this position by directing the Corinthians’ attention to the signs of an apostle that God displayed in Paul’s ministry.221 The observation from 2 Cor 11:5 and 12:11–12 that is most pertinent to this book is that Paul is willing to highlight and defend his apostleship and equality with other apostles for the sake of ensuring that his gospel receives a proper hearing. The tone is accordingly very similar to the tone in Galatians 1:1—2:10.

Finally, in Rom 11:13 Paul mentions his apostleship to the Gentiles in the midst of a discussion about God’s purposes for the Jews in bringing salvation to the Gentiles. This passage aligns well with the delineation of Paul’s apostolic ministry in Gal 2:8, where Paul’s authority among the Gentiles was equated to Peter’s authority among the Jews. Paul shares the name “apostle” with other early apostles and shares their basic message. Where he is distinct, however, is in his commissioning to the Gentiles. This difference is reflected in Paul’s gospel as well, since he must highlight and defend the full applicability of Christ’s work to Gentiles apart from the Law (see Rom 3:21, 28).

The testimony from the preceding passages produces a coherent composite picture of Paul’s apostleship. The emphasis differs somewhat in the various passages, yet these divergences can be explained best by looking at the two passages that are most pronounced in their differences, 1 Cor 15:1–11 and Gal 1:1—2:10. The tone and balance of 1 Cor 15:1–11 as compared to Gal 1:1—2:10 creates no contradiction in Paul’s understanding of his apostleship and relationship to tradition.

Both passages uphold both the chronological priority of the earlier apostles and the full membership of Paul in their number. The occasion behind Gal 1:1—2:10 required a stronger emphasis on Paul’s independent authority, since the reception of his gospel among the Gentiles was at stake, whereas in 1 Cor 15:1–11, Paul’s purposes are better served by accentuating common ground and respect for the first apostles and their teaching.222

Both passages also group Paul’s revealed gospel with the recognized teaching of the early church. The teaching affirmed in 1 Cor 15:3–7 has been passed down rather than received by divine revelation as in Gal 1:11–12. But Paul’s gospel, with its accent placed on the benefits for Gentiles, is recognized as existing in harmony with the predominant tradition in Gal 2:1–10. This same accord is implied with the inclusion of Paul’s witness of Christ in the tradition in 1 Cor 15:8. Therefore, Paul’s gospel, while not equivalent to the inherited tradition in either 1 Corinthians 15 or Galatians 1–2, is in both places congruent with that tradition.223 Other passages fit somewhere on the spectrum between 1 Corinthians 15 and Galatians 1–2. In each case, Paul understands himself as an apostle on the same level as the most eminent apostles and sees his teaching as being in basic harmony with theirs.

Paul’s Suffering and Imprisonment

Suffering and imprisonment are prominent themes in Paul’s description of his ministry, and these themes are featured as well in the Epistle to the Laodiceans, 3 Corinthians, Colossians, and Ephesians. Among the significant passages on this topic in the undisputed letters are Gal 6:17; 1 Cor 4:8–13; Phil 1:7, 12–26, 29–30; 2:16–18; 3:8–11; 2 Cor 1:5–11; 4:7–12; 6:3–10; Phlm 1, 9–10, 13, 23. Paul’s theological appraisal of his suffering and imprisonment as well as his purposes for discussing his hardships will be investigated in this section. It will be argued that Paul understands his suffering as a central aspect of his ministry and as an extension of his theology regarding union with Christ.224

Paul shares an enigmatic statement about bearing the marks of Jesus (τὰ στίγματα τοῦ Ἰησοῦ) at the end of his letter to the Galatians (Gal 6:17). The preceding context suggests that Paul is referring to the suffering he has endured because of his association with a crucified Savior (Gal 6:12).225 Any suffering Paul has endured is consistent with Paul’s message of Christ crucified and an outworking of being crucified with Christ (Gal 2:20). Paul may have specific injuries in mind, because he mentions that the marks of Christ are on his body.226 Paul employs this reminder of his afflictions for several possible reasons as part of a warning to those who oppose him. First, as a closing remark, this recollection of Paul’s arduous, suffering-laden ministry for the Galatians serves to strengthen the force of Paul’s argument in the letter.227 The sincerity of Paul’s devotion to Christ is enhanced by reference to his suffering. Second, Paul’s intimate bond with Christ suggests that causing trouble to Paul entails causing trouble to Christ.228 Third, Paul’s brand-marks also function to identify that he belongs to Jesus.229 So it is possible that the verse serves as a further reminder that Paul answers to God alone and will not succumb to pressure applied by opponents (see the connection between Paul’s identity as Christ’s servant [δοῦλος] and his resistance to pleasing people in Gal 1:10).

Paul highlights the mistreatments and hardships endured as an apostle in 1 Cor 4:8–13. He does so by placing the position of an apostle in ironic contrast to the supposedly superior status of his readers (4:8). When using the plural ἀποστόλους in 4:9, Paul likely has in mind at least Apollos (mentioned in 4:6), along with other authentic servants of the gospel.230 These apostles are characterized by the lowly estate they accept for the sake of Christ (4:10). Verse 9 presents the intriguing image of the apostles being displayed (ἀποδείκνυμι) as last in a line of captives who are condemned to death and exposed as a spectacle (θέατρον) to the surrounding world.231 The reference to a sentence of death need not foresee Paul’s eventual martyrdom for the faith but instead metaphorically places his lot in life alongside other undesirables who are en route to death in the public arena.232 In verse 12, Paul graphically describes his condition with the terms περικαθάρμα and περίψημα. The words in this context carry a derogatory connotation, highlighting the dismissive appraisal the world has of apostles like Paul. The idea communicated in this passage is that Paul’s ministry brings little acclaim but rather opposition, trials, and derision. Paul accepts these features as part of his calling as an apostle.

In Paul’s letter to the Philippians, the theme of suffering is traced under the larger topic of participation in the gospel (Phil 1:5, 27; 2:22; 4:3). Paul opens his discussion of suffering by affirming the believers for their willingness to support him in his hardship (1:7).233 Paul is explicit in this case that his suffering consists of imprisonment (1:7; also 1:13, 14, 17). The Philippians have thrown their lot with Paul in his imprisonment and the ministry resulting from it. According to Paul, when the Philippians share in Paul’s suffering in this way, they also share in spiritual benefits.234 They are συγκοινωνοί with Paul in God’s grace. This perspective conforms to Paul’s theology of being united with Christ in his suffering and glory (Phil 3:10–11).

In Phil 1:12–26 Paul refers only generally to his circumstances (τὰ κατ’ ἐμέ, 1:12), omitting any mention of the physical challenges related to his hardship.235 His chief interest in the passage is in the positive spiritual effects of his imprisonment in the lives of others. He speaks of the progress of the gospel (1:12) arising from an increased awareness that Paul’s profession of Christ is the reason for his incarceration and from a renewed boldness among other preachers of the gospel because of his imprisonment (1:13–14). Opportunities for an expanded ministry influence are never far removed from Paul’s thoughts (note especially the language of “open doors” in 1 Cor 16:9; 2 Cor 2:12). The advance of the gospel, consistent with the letter’s emphasis on participating in the gospel, takes precedence over Paul’s personal comfort (1:17–18).

Paul views prayer from fellow believers as an indispensable resource through the power of God’s Spirit (1:19). The prayers are mentioned in connection with Paul’s deliverance (σωτηρία). The link to Paul’s release in 1:24–26 may imply that Paul’s physical deliverance is intended in 1:19, but Paul’s fixation on his eschatological hope in 1:21–23 suggests the possibility of a reference to eternal salvation in 1:19 as well.236 An option that incorporates both meanings is deliverance as Paul’s vindication before those who denigrated Paul’s apostleship.237 Verse 20 is congenial to this position, since the language of not being put to shame envisions public vindication, and Paul himself includes both release from prison and eternal salvation as opportunities for vindication in the verse.238 That Paul is torn between the possibilities of life and death is apparent from his rumination over his possible outcomes in 1:20–24. Suffering reminds him of both his glorious destiny and his commitment to his flock, and these two values lead him in different directions.239 In the end, he suspects that God holds a more immediate purpose for Paul’s life in the lives of his readers (1:25–26). He is willing to set aside “gain” (1:21) and the “better” (1:23) of being with Christ in deference to the “more necessary” (1:24) task of “fruitful labor” (1:22). In conclusion, Paul adopts a positive attitude towards his suffering and imprisonment. He recognizes the spiritual benefit for others resulting from his ordeal and takes comfort knowing that he will share in the glory of the Christ whom he represents.

Brief mention should be made of a term (ἀγών) Paul uses in connection to suffering (πάσχω) in Phil 1:29–30. The Philippians are encouraged to prepare themselves to suffer and join in Paul’s struggle for the gospel.240 The past ἀγών that Paul recalls is likely the same one mentioned in 1 Thess 2:2, where Paul also employs ἀγών to depict his struggle to advance the gospel in the midst of conflict throughout Macedonia.241 In both cases, Paul uses the imagery of a contest to depict his commitment to the gospel in spite of heated opposition.

Later in Philippians, Paul again accents the centrality of suffering in his ministry, along with his determination to suffer for the sake of those to whom he ministers (Phil 2:16–18). In verse 16, Paul envisions the day in which he will give an account of his ministry to God (2:16). If the Philippians exhibit spiritual maturity, then Paul’s labors (κοπιάω), including his suffering, will not have been in vain (εἰς κενόν).242 Paul’s suffering, expressed in the sacrificial language of a libation (σπένδω) is best interpreted as figurative language that alludes to death.243 The prospect of suffering even death as an offering, in support of the Philippians’ own sacrificial service arising from their faith, would bring Paul great joy.244 In these three verses, Paul exhibits the value he places on a fruitful ministry among the Philippians, showing that he is willing to labor and even die in order to help the Philippians persevere in their faith.

Philippians 3:8–11 occurs as part of an autobiographical account of Paul’s transformation and calling. Paul specifies his goal of gaining Christ and being found in him by means of receiving a righteous standing in God’s sight (3:8–9). Gaining Christ is contrasted with losing all else and refers to the privilege of knowing Christ (3:8, 10). The centrality to Paul’s thought of union with Christ (εὑρεθῶ ἐν αὐτῷ) as the basis for life and righteousness emerges clearly in these verses.245 Paul’s identification with Christ has entailed enduring the loss of all things. Paul has already indicated twice his willingness to lose his prior advantages for the sake of knowing Christ (3:7–8). The third mention of suffering loss, instead of merely repeating Paul’s devaluation of religious or worldly achievement may point to the actual suffering and disadvantage Paul has encountered as a minister of the gospel.246

Paul proceeds in verse 10 by unfolding more of what it means to be found in Christ. Union with Christ consists of knowing Christ, especially in the power of his resurrection and the fellowship of his sufferings. This participation in both the power and affliction of Christ is probably understood by Paul as occurring simultaneously in the course of his life and ministry.247 They are two sides of the implications of being united with Christ. Then, in a chiastic structure Paul discusses life united with Christ as being both “already” and “not yet.”248 First, Paul sees himself being conformed to the pattern of Christ’s death (συμμορφιζόμενος τῷ θανάτῳ αὐτοῦ), which is best understood as an expression of the outworkings of the believer’s union with Christ.249 Second, Paul sets his sights on the future resurrection as the end result of his life with Christ (see also Phil 3:21, where Paul speaks of conformity [σύμμορφος] into the glorified body of Christ).250

Is Paul speaking of his experience as representative of that of all Christians or is he simply describing his individual calling as a chosen minister? The autobiographical account is enlisted for illustrative purposes, promoting a life with Christ by the Spirit (3:3–4). This suggests some application to a way of life designed for all believers. But we have seen elsewhere (1 Cor 9:1–5) that Paul may use his life as an example even when the particulars do not apply to Christians in general. Such is probably the case here too with respect to the prominent role of suffering. Paul provides the impetus for Christians to seek the righteousness of Christ by describing vividly the account of his own transformation and experience in ministry.251 Paul’s suffering constitutes a central component of his calling as a minister. This is for Paul’s life and ministry the tangible outworking of sharing in the sufferings of Christ.

Much of 2 Corinthians as a whole revolves around the topic of suffering. Paul’s contention throughout the letter is that true ministry consists in comfort through suffering (2 Cor 1:1–11), comfort through sorrow (1:12—2:13; 6:11—7:16), glory and life through affliction and death (2:14—6:10), riches through poverty (8:1—9:15) and power through weakness (10:1—13:14). Specific passages 2 Cor 1:5–11; 4:7–12; 6:3–10 serve as representative samples of Paul’s theology in the letter.

In 2 Cor 1:5–11, Paul sees the relational significance of his sufferings in terms of two relationships, his relationship to Christ and his relationship to the Corinthians. First, in 1:5 Paul identifies his sufferings as the “sufferings of Christ” (τὰ παθήματα τοῦ Χριστοῦ). This phrasing is best comprehended as the practical experience of Paul’s union with Christ.252 Believers share in the sufferings of Christ and also experience his comfort.253 Paul thus sees his sufferings as a participation in the sufferings of Christ. Second, Paul views his suffering as endured for the sake of those to whom he ministers. In 1:6 Paul reveals that his suffering is motivated by the goal of the Corinthians’ comfort and salvation. Paul expected that his suffering-laden ministry would strengthen the Corinthians through their own trials and would propel them towards the goal of their salvation.254 Paul hopes that his own experience of comfort through suffering will serve to motivate his readers in their suffering (1:7).255 Paul then relates a recent trial in his own life as a vivid picture of both the intensity of suffering and the faithfulness of God to sustain and deliver (1:8–10). As was the case with σωτηρία in Phil 1:19, Paul’s use of ῥύομαι in 2 Cor 1:10 may point to vindication, whether through release from prison or through death.256 In the course of his sufferings, Paul once again highlights his reliance on the prayers of his fellow believers and sees potential favorable answers from God in the future as a source of thanksgiving among those who witness God’s deliverance (1:11). Paul is keenly aware of both the work of God in the midst of his sufferings and of the potential impact that his sufferings and deliverance may have upon those to whom he ministers.

Paul returns to this dual emphasis in 2 Cor 4:7–12. The greater literary context demonstrates Paul’s interest in the juxtaposition of suffering and glory.257 Paul paints a vivid picture of his sufferings, which are permitted in order to magnify the power of God in him (4:7). Paul’s sufferings are severe, but God’s sustenance always exceeds the measure of affliction (4:8–9). Paul’s sufferings are an extension and illustration of Christ’s suffering and death (4:10a).258 This is confirmed by Paul’s use of παραδίδωμι (4:11a) with reference to his experience, echoing the language applied to Christ’s suffering and death (Gal 2:20; 1 Cor 11:23).259 Through the pairing of πάντοτε and ἀεί (both equivalent to “always”) in verses 10 and 11 Paul conveys the belief that suffering is an enduring and even a defining part of his identity as an apostle.260 But suffering and even death do not signify defeat for Christ or for Paul, as demonstrated by Christ’s resurrection and the corresponding power that is expressed through Paul in his ministry of suffering (4:10b, 11b). Paul’s conclusion then is that the suffering he endures results in life for those to whom he ministers (4:12). In this section as a whole, Paul defines his ministry in terms of intimate participation in the suffering and power of Christ. Paul welcomes this close association with Christ’s suffering for the sake of believers such as those in Corinth. He suffers for them so that they will experience the reality of Christ’s life in their lives. This concern for the Corinthians is reiterated in 4:15, though in that verse Paul ultimately places the accent of his motivations on pleasing God, returning to his initial theme from 4:7.261

As already mentioned earlier 2 Cor 6:3–10 owes some of its direction to the influence of Isaiah 49. Paul draws upon the figure of the servant of Isaiah 49 as inspiration for how he carries out his ministry. Paul characterizes his ministry as a servant of God in part by the experience of suffering. This suffering ministry goes hand in hand with Paul’s obligation to proclaim God’s message of reconciliation. Paul suffers not randomly or incidentally, but his suffering constitutes a central aspect of God’s communication of salvation through Paul’s life.262 This suffering, which is in keeping with being a servant of God, serves to help commend Paul as an authentic messenger. Specifically, Paul demonstrates the sincerity of his message and his labors by pointing to his resolve in the presence of much suffering (6:3–5). Suffering has often been severe, and yet God has always sustained Paul in the process (6:9–10). Though in a series of surprising contrasts in these two verses Paul underscores God’s power in his own life as the main theme, he once again mentions the spiritual benefits that overflow to others in the midst of his hardship (ὡς πτωχοὶ πολλοὺς δὲ πλουτίζοντες). Confirming this ministry concern, Paul reveals that his purpose for highlighting his suffering throughout the passage is to cultivate a stronger relationship with his readers (6:11–13). He desires a more wholehearted reception of his message of reconciliation, which is interwoven with his authority as a minister to them (5:18—6:2). Once again, Paul’s sufferings are invoked in relation to both God’s ministry to Paul and Paul’s ministry to his readers.

The imprisonment reported in Philemon sheds additional light on Paul’s perspective toward suffering.263 Paul’s frequent inclusion of his status as a prisoner as part of his address to Philemon (1:1, 9, 10, 13, 23) suggests that his imprisonment shaped significantly his self-perception at the time. Paul identifies himself as a prisoner (δέσμιος) of Christ, thus attributing his imprisonment more than anything to his service of Christ (Phlm 1:1).264 Paul expresses the same idea in 1:13, where he specifies that his imprisonment is for the gospel, and in 1:23, where he identifies Epaphras as a fellow prisoner (συναιχμάλωτος) in Christ Jesus.265 For Paul, suffering is never detached from Christ, who called Paul to ministry and marked the way of suffering in his own ministry.