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1 1 Milestone exhibitions that raised the level of debate concerning colonialism and representation through the controversy they created would include Primitivism in Twentieth Century Art: Affinities of the Tribal and the Modern (Museum of Modern Art, New York, 1984), Les magiciens de la terre (Centre Pompidou, Paris, 1989), The Other Story (Hayward Gallery, London, 1989), The Raj: India and the British 1600–1947 (The National Portrait Gallery, London, 1990), Into the Heart of Africa (The Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, 1989). A later example which is discussed in detail by Johan Lagae in Chapter 7 of this volume is Memory of Congo: The Colonial Era (Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, 2005).

2 2 Now classic critiques of the art and artifact paradigms include Redfield (1959); Clifford (1988); Vogel (1988).

3 3 Under threat of closure after the Dutch government withdrew its funding in 2013, the decision was taken to combine the collections of the Tropenmuseum with those of the Volkenkunde Museum in Leiden and the Afrika Museum in Berg en Dal and to reorganize the existing museum, possibly using the museum of world cultures model.

4 4 “250 Years On: What Does It Mean To Be a World Museum?” was a speech given by Neil MacGregor in January 2009 on the occasion of the 250th anniversary of the public opening of the British Museum (MacGregor 2009).

5 5 The radio programs began on January 18, 2010.

6 6 See, for example, the catalog and critical reviews from the blockbuster exhibition, Africa Art of a Continent at the Royal Academy of Arts in London, which is discussed at length in Coombes (2001).

7 7 Initiated by the Mozambican Christian Council under the auspices of Bishop Dinis Sengulane, Transforming Arms into Tools was supported by the NGO Christian Aid. The BBC website claims that “over 600,000 weapons were surrendered in exchange for tools.”

8 8 Sophie Beissel, comment on “Throne of Weapons.” A History of the World in 100 Objects, October 22, 2010 (11:23 am). Accessed April 16, 2014. http://www.bbc.co.uk/ahistoryoftheworld/objects/97OnxVXaQkehlbliKKDB6A.

9 9 The signatories were the directors of The Art Institute of Chicago; Bavarian State Museum Munich; State Museums, Berlin; Cleveland Museum of Art; J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles; Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York; Louvre Museum, Paris; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; The Museum of Fine Arts, Boston; The Museum of Modern Art, New York; Opificio delle Pietre Dure, Florence; Philadelphia Museum of Art; Prado Museum, Madrid; Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam; State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg; Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum, Madrid; Whitney Museum of American Art, New York; and The British Museum, London.

10 10 A very similar justification had been made in 1984 by David Wilson, then director of the British Museum, when in the face of heated restitution claims he argued that the museum’s political neutrality and its internationalism gave it the right to hold “material in trust for humankind for the foreseeable future” (Wilson 1984). See also The Declaration on the Importance and Value of Universal Museums, 2002, and, for an elaboration of some of the debates it provoked, Tom Flynn ([2004] 2012). The text of the Declaration is reprinted in ICOM News 1 (2004), p. 4, http://icom.museum/fileadmin/user_upload/pdf/ICOM_News/2004-1/ENG/p4_2004-1.pdf (accessed May 12, 2014). The responses of several museum directors are given in Lewis (2004).

11 11 Neil MacGregor’s speech is reproduced in full in “The Whole World in Our Hands,” The Guardian, July 24, 2004.

12 12 The Heritage Lottery Fund (2014) is the largest dedicated funder of heritage projects in the United Kingdom. It is a “non-departmental public body accountable to Parliament via the Department for Culture, Media and Sport.”

13 13 See, for example, the scholarly journal Holocaust and Genocide Studies: An International Journal; Sharpley (2005); Stone and Sharpley (2008).

14 14 http://www.sitesofconscience.org/approach/ (accessed May 12, 2014).

15 15 http://www.sitesofconscience.org/about-us/ (accessed May 12, 2014).

16 16 The distinction between the museum as temple and forum was made by Cameron (1971).

17 17 See Phillips (2005) for Canadian examples of the use of the museum to rehearse larger grievances.

18 18 For the implications of actor network theory to museums, see Harrison (2013) and Phillips (2011).

19 19 See, for example, the critiques of the Royal Museum for Central Africa’s (Tervuren) attempt to address the long-denied colonial history of Belgium’s exploitation of the Congo, La Memoire du Congo: Le Temps Colonial: Adam Hochschild, “In the Heart of Darkness,” New York Review of Books, October 6, 2005 and the response to this in the letters pages of the New York Review of Books, January 12, 2006.

20 20 The projected text includes a section that reads: “Any Indian in the province of Manitoba, British Columbia, Saskatchewan or Alberta, or in the Territories who participates in any Indian dance outside the bound of his own reserve, or who participates in any show, exhibition, performance, stampede or pageant in aboriginal costume, without the consent of the Superintendent general” (section 149, article 2).

21 21 Haudenosaunee, meaning “People of the Longhouse,” replaces the older term “Iroquois” and includes six modern First Nations: the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, and Tuscarora. The primary advisers for the 2012 diorama were Rick Hill and Keith Jamieson of the Six Nations Legacy Consortium and Woodlands Cultural Centre director Janis Monture and curator Paula Withlow. The gallery’s official name is The Daphne Cockwell Gallery of Canada: First Peoples.

22 22 Cultural rights are stated in a number of the articles of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, adopted in 2007 (United Nations 2007).

23 23 For explorations of collaboration in museum anthropology, see Peers and Brown (2003); for a rich range of case studies see Canadian Conservation Institute (2008).

24 24 The contributing museums were the Museo Natzionale Etnografico et Archaeologico “Luigi Pigorini”; the Musée du quai Branly; the Musée royal de l’Afrique centrale, Tervuren; and the Museum für Völkerkunde, Vienna.

25 25 For a detailed account of a number of the best-known of such experiments, see Putnam (2009).

26 26 Baumgarten has produced other interventions in museum spaces which were designed to challenge the criteria and typologies of the institution. One of the best known was Unsettled Objects at the Pitt Rivers Museum in Oxford from 1968 to 1969 which was a projected slide show of 80 “labeled” images of views and objects from the museum. It attempted to disrupt the presumptions of the evolutionary typologies of the original museum displays. The intervention has had a long afterlife and was recently reconstructed at the Gallery of Modern Art in Glasgow.

27 27 “Anishinaabe” (the people) is the name used by Houle’s First Nation for themselves rather than “Ojibwa,” ascribed by outsiders and used by Baumgarten as one of the tribal names in his piece.

28 28 Git Hayetsk means “People of the Copper Shield.” The group, which is based in Vancouver, British Columbia, was founded by Mique’l Dangeli, who is Tsimshian, and her husband Mike Dangeli, who is Nisga’a. Its 50 members come from different Northwest Coast and other First Nations.

29 29 The exhibition, Looking to the Past to Inspire Our Future (2007) displayed reproductions of Haldane’s photographs salvaged from damaged and discarded glass plate negatives and rediscovered by Dangeli in museum archives in Europe and North America.