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1 Chapter 35Figure 35.1 General navigation framework.

2 Chapter 36Figure 36.1 Gaussian sum illustration. The random variable x_sum is represent...Figure 36.2 MMAE filter implementation. The MMAE filter constructs the state...Figure 36.3 Sample vehicle trajectory and observations. Note that the range ...Figure 36.4 MMAE initial state estimate and position density function. Note ...Figure 36.5 MMAE state estimate (after 22 observations). Range observations ...Figure 36.6 MMAE state estimate (after 100 observations). Note the state est...Figure 36.7 MMAE position error and one‐sigma uncertainty. Note that the err...Figure 36.8 MMAE integer ambiguity particle weights (subset). The correct am...Figure 36.9 Probability density function (PDF) and cumulative density functi...Figure 36.10 Importance sampling used to represent arbitrary density functio...Figure 36.11 Visualization of nonlinear transformation on a random variable....Figure 36.12 Grid particle filter state estimate and position density functi...Figure 36.13 Grid particle filter state estimate (after 22 observations). Ra...Figure 36.14 Grid particle filter state estimate (after 100 observations). N...Figure 36.15 Grid particle filter position error and one‐sigma uncertainty. ...Figure 36.16 Proposal sampling illustration. In this example, the particles ...Figure 36.17 SIR particle filter initial state estimate and position density...Figure 36.18 SIR particle filter state estimate (after 22 observations). Ran...Figure 36.19 SIR particle filter state estimate (after 100 observations). No...Figure 36.20 SIR particle filter position error and one‐sigma uncertainty. N...

3 Chapter 37Figure 37.1 Taxonomy of signals for indoor localization.Figure 37.2 Positioning based on angle of arrival (AoA) measurement [27]....Figure 37.3 Positioning based on ToA/RToF measurements [27].Figure 37.4 Positioning based on time difference of arrival (TDoA) [27].Figure 37.5 Measured accuracy and Wi‐Fi signal distributions excerpted for a...Figure 37.6 Autocorrelation‐based step cycle detection. The top graph shows ...Figure 37.7 Particle transition near obstacles: if a particle tries to move ...Figure 37.8 (a) Paths traced for various Wi‐Fi scan intervals for LearnLoc u...

4 Chapter 38Figure 38.1 Cellular systems generations.Figure 38.2 Clock error states dynamics model.Figure 38.3 Mapper and navigator in a cellular environment (Khalife et al. [...Figure 38.4 Forward link modulator (Khalife et al. [18]).Figure 38.5 Forward link sync channel encoder (Khalife et al. [18]; 3GPP2 [5...Figure 38.6 Sync channel message structure (Khalife et al. [18]; 3GPP2 [50])...Figure 38.7 Forward link paging channel encoder (Khalife et al. [18]; 3GPP2 ...Figure 38.8 Paging channel message structure (Khalife et al. [18]; 3GPP2 [50...Figure 38.9 |Z_k|² for (a) unsynchronized and (b) synchronized c_I and c_Q code...Figure 38.10 Carrier wipe‐off and correlator. Thick lines indicate a complex...Figure 38.11 Cellular CDMA signal acquisition front panel showing |Z_k|² alon...Figure 38.12 Tracking loops in a navigation cellular CDMA receiver. Thick li...Figure 38.13 Autocorrelation function of GPS C/A code and cellular CDMA PN s...Figure 38.14 Cellular CDMA signal tracking: (a) code phase error (chips), (b...Figure 38.15 Sync and paging channel timing (Khalife et al. [18]; 3GPP2 [50]...Figure 38.16 Long code mask structure (Khalife et al. [18]; 3GPP2 [50]).Figure 38.17 Message decoding: demodulated sync channel signal (left) and BT...Figure 38.18 Output of the coherent baseband discriminator function for the ...Figure 38.19 Plot of σ, the standard deviation of Δt, as a function of ...Figure 38.20 BTS environment and experimental hardware setup for the UAV exp...Figure 38.21 Variation in pseudoranges and the variation in distances betwee...Figure 38.22 BTS environment, true trajectory, and experimental hardware set...Figure 38.23 Variation in pseudoranges and the variation in distances betwee...Figure 38.24 Experimental hardware setup, navigator trajectory, and mapper a...Figure 38.25 BTS environment and experimental hardware setup with a mobile m...Figure 38.26 Navigating UAV’s true and estimated trajectory.Figure 38.27 OFDM transmission block diagram (Kassas et al. [6]).Figure 38.28 LTE frame structure (Shamaei et al. [64, 65]).Figure 38.29 Composition of a single LTE frame. The slots represent time, wh...Figure 38.30 Block diagram of the LTE navigation receiver architecture (Sham...Figure 38.31 Signal acquisition block diagram (Shamaei et al. [64, 65]).Figure 38.32 PSS and SSS normalized correlation results with real LTE signal...Figure 38.33 MIB coding process (Shamaei et al. [65]).Figure 38.34 Tail biting convolutional encoder with constraint length 7 and ...Figure 38.35 MIB channel decoding method (Shamaei et al. [65]).Figure 38.36 General structure of downlink physical channels (Shamaei et al....Figure 38.37 System information extraction block diagram (Shamaei et al. [64...Figure 38.38 LTE SSS signal tracking block diagram (Shamaei et al. [64, 65])...Figure 38.39 LTE SSS tracking results with a stationary receiver (Shamaei et...Figure 38.40 Timing Information Extraction block diagram (Shamaei et al. [64...Figure 38.41 Structure of a DLL employing a coherent baseband discriminator ...Figure 38.42 Output of the coherent baseband discriminator function for the ...Figure 38.43 The standard deviation of the ranging error Δτ is related ...Figure 38.44 Coherent baseband discriminator noise performance as a function...Figure 38.45 General structure of the DLL to track the code phase (Shamaei e...Figure 38.46 Normalized signal component of non‐coherent discriminator funct...Figure 38.47 Variance of the ranging error in a dot‐product discriminator is...Figure 38.48 DLL performance as a function of C/N₀ for non‐coherent discrimi...Figure 38.49 LTE environment layout and experimental hardware setup. Map dat...Figure 38.50 (a) Estimated change in pseudorange and estimated CIR at t = 13...Figure 38.51 (a) Estimated change in pseudorange and estimated CIR at t = 8....Figure 38.52 (a) Experimental hardware and software setup and environment la...Figure 38.53 Experimental hardware setup and environment layout in Riverside...Figure 38.54 (a) A cellular CDMA receiver placed at the border of two sector...Figure 38.55 The discrepancies ɛ₁ and ɛ₂ between the clock biases ...Figure 38.56 (a) A realization of the discrepancy ɛ_i between the observ...Figure 38.57 The (a) acf and (b) psd of e_i with a sampling frequency of 5 Hz...Figure 38.58 Distribution of ζ_i from experimental data and the estimate...Figure 38.59 Locations of the cellular CDMA BTSs: Colton, California; Rivers...Figure 38.60 Six realizations, five minutes each, of the sector clock bias d...Figure 38.61 Figure (a) represents the number of GPS SVs with an elevation a...Figure 38.62 (a) Sky plot of GPS SVs: 14, 18, 21, 22, and 27 used for the 5 ...Figure 38.63 Experimental results comparing the navigation solution uncertai...Figure 38.64 Tightly coupled cellular‐aided INS framework (Kassas et al. [4]...Figure 38.65 Illustration of simulation results for a UAV flying over downto...Figure 38.66 Experimental results of a UAV aiding its INS with cellular sign...

5 Chapter 39Figure 39.1 Broadcast, uplink, and bidirectional systems.Figure 39.2 Spectral mask for the 2 MHz signal (GLONASS Interface Control Do...Figure 39.3 Amplitude and phase response of the MBS transmit filter as a fun...Figure 39.4 Frequency spectrum of MBS 2 MHz signal in comparison with GPS C/...Figure 39.5 Zoomed‐in frequency spectrum of MBS 2 MHz signal in comparison w...Figure 39.6 Correlation function of MBS compared with example of GPS code PR...Figure 39.7 Correlation function of MBS and GPS at the peak.Figure 39.8 Correlation function showing close‐in side lobes.Figure 39.9 Beacon slot structure – preamble, pilot, and data sections.Figure 39.10 Relationship between GPS and MBS system timing.Figure 39.11 Transmitter block diagram.Figure 39.12 GPS search space.Figure 39.13 (a) Shows the MBS preamble search space and (b) shows the MBS b...Figure 39.14 (a) Shows a correlation function for a scenario with detectable...Figure 39.15 Sample channel responses from MBS beacons.Figure 39.16 Channel spread statistics.Figure 39.17 MBS timing receiver architecture.Figure 39.18 Time interval error for MBS timing reception measured over 48 h...Figure 39.19 Maximum time interval error (MTIE) of MBS timing measured over ...Figure 39.20 LPP call flow for MBS positioning using assistance.Figure 39.21 Representative 2D accuracy walk test result.Figure 39.22 Representative z‐axis walk test result at a multi‐storied hotel...Figure 39.23 The KML snapshot shows the 2D error performance.

6 Chapter 40Figure 40.1 Distribution of digital broadcasting systems for terrestrial tel...Figure 40.2 Frame structure of ATSC‐8VSB DTV signals.Figure 40.3 Recovery of single sideband signals.Figure 40.4 Architecture of an ATSC‐8VSB baseband signal processor with TOA ...Figure 40.5 Acquisition of DTV signals.Figure 40.6 Tracking of DTV‐8VSB field sync codes (a)–(f) and pilot signals ...Figure 40.7 Frame structure of DVB‐T signals.Figure 40.8 Generation of an OFDM symbol for DVB‐T signals.Figure 40.9 Pilot organization for DVB‐T signals (not to scale).Figure 40.10 Architecture of a DVB‐T OFDM signal processor with TOA tracking...Figure 40.11 Ideal correlation functions for various components of an OFDM s...Figure 40.12 Test results of pilot‐carriers‐based delay tracking for refined...Figure 40.13 Layered segments of ISDB‐T channel and OFDM symbols in a segmen...Figure 40.14 Frame structure of DTMB signals.Figure 40.15 Bootstrap signaling within an ATSC 3.0 frame.Figure 40.16 Relationship of timelines at transmitter and receiver and aperi...Figure 40.17 Test environment with ATSC‐8VSB signals on Google Earth.Figure 40.18 Test setting for study of mobile fading.Figure 40.19 Fading study with six antennas in a stop‐move‐stop sequence.Figure 40.20 Range calibration and clock error estimation (Subplot (i) taken...Figure 40.21 Results of field tests for ranging with DVB‐T signals [8].Figure 40.22 Geometry and coverage on estimation error and receiver complexi...Figure 40.23 Radio dead-reckoning (relative positioning) with mixed signals ...

7 Chapter 41Figure 41.1 Loran‐C and Chayka positioning (solid lines) and data (dotted li...Figure 41.2 Loran‐C pulse.Figure 41.3 Loran‐C Cycle Identification process. The correct zero crossing ...Figure 41.4 Phase code interval transmission sequence of a Loran‐C chain....Figure 41.5 Fifth‐generation AN/FPN‐64(V)1 XN‐1 SSX (background) prototype N...Figure 41.6 Seventh‐generation NL‐60 software‐defined transmitter.Figure 41.7 700‐ft TLM Loran antenna.Figure 41.8 Top: Representative TWSTT. Bottom: Representative TWLFTT.Figure 41.9 Loran‐C ground wave and sky‐wave propagation.Figure 41.10 Ground‐ and sky‐wave field intensities as a function of distanc...Figure 41.11 Twenty‐four hours of pulse envelopes from Sylt (left, at 407 km...Figure 41.12 Ten successive negative‐to‐positive zero crossings from Ejde me...Figure 41.13 Leading part of a Russian Chayka pulse envelope compared to the...Figure 41.14 Secondary factor as a function of distance.Figure 41.15 The ASF discounts for the additional propagation delay caused b...Figure 41.16 Modeled and measured ASF values for Nantucket, Massachusetts (m...Figure 41.17 Measured ASF values of the UK Anthorn eLoran transmitter (left)...Figure 41.18 ASFs of the UK Anthorn eLoran transmitter. The top‐left figure ...Figure 41.19 Temporal variation regions for the United States expressed in n...Figure 41.20 Detail of the I‐495 South track. The red lines depict the E‐fie...Figure 41.21 Land‐mobile ASFs measured along the 495‐South in Massachusetts,...Figure 41.22 Positioning performance during Tampa Bay Harbor Entrance and Ap...Figure 41.23 Comparison of CCIR noise predictions for North America and West...Figure 41.24 Example of interference in automotive Loran applications. Top: ...Figure 41.25 Cross‐rate between the European Loran chains GRI 6731 and GRI 9...Figure 41.26 The sky‐wave of the cross‐rating pulse (red) hits the tracking ...Figure 41.27 Legacy Loran‐C receivers: SI‐TEX XJ‐1 (left) and Koden LR‐770 (...Figure 41.28 Legacy line‐of‐position (LOP) chart for the US 9960 chain (left...Figure 41.29 Representative rack‐mount eLoran receivers.Figure 41.30 eLoran receiver design – signal reception and conditioning.Figure 41.31 A steep, narrow bandpass filter causes severe attenuation at th...Figure 41.32 Non‐causal “filt‐filt” filtering does preserve the phase and mo...Figure 41.33 Dual‐band (eLoran and GPS) E‐field antenna (left) and the inter...Figure 41.34 Equivalent receiver‐noise field strength.Figure 41.35 E‐field antenna followed by a charge‐amplifier. C_a depicts the ...Figure 41.36 Ferrite‐loaded loop (left) and its equivalent circuit (right)....Figure 41.37 H‐field antenna in (left) resonance configuration and (right) w...Figure 41.38 Influence of rod length and rod diameter on noise performance (...Figure 41.39 Angular‐dependent TOA measurement error due to E‐field suscepti...Figure 41.40 H‐field antenna tuning errors measured during a data collection...Figure 41.41 Various sources of cross‐coupling or “cross‐talk” in an active ...Figure 41.42 eLoran research measurement setup installed on a boat. The H‐fi...Figure 41.43 Uncorrected H‐field antenna response (blue=loop 1, red=loop 2)....Figure 41.44 Antenna response after cross‐talk correction (blue depicts loop...Figure 41.45 eLoran receiver design – signal tracking, correction, and posit...Figure 41.46 eLoran positioning performance measured in 2014 on board the P...Figure 41.47 eLoran providing timing inside NYSE, accurate within 16.1 ns re...Figure 41.48 Transmitted alternative waveforms (Schue et al. [104]).Figure 41.49 Alternative waveforms in the time domain (left) and frequency d...

8 Chapter 42Figure 42.1 Chain Home radio tower (public domain).Figure 42.2 Maritime radar system display. The shape of the land masses near...Figure 42.3 The first SAR image, developed by the University of Michigan in ...Figure 42.4 SAR imagery of western Pennsylvania terrain, generated in the 19...Figure 42.5 Modern SAR image, generated in real‐time during flight by a mini...Figure 42.6 Overview of the typical stages in a radar system.Figure 42.7 Polar format mismatch between collected data and the reconstruct...Figure 42.8 Example transmitted OFDM symbol with random modulation.Figure 42.9 Example transmitted OFDM symbol with preset modulation on the fi...Figure 42.10 Overview of the navigation system implemented.Figure 42.11 Overview of radar signal processing method.Figure 42.12 Illustration of radar slow time versus fast time. The radar sys...Figure 42.13 Matched filter output of an OFDM pulse reflecting off a perfect...Figure 42.14 Matched filter output of an OFDM pulse reflecting off three ref...Figure 42.15 MF SNR histogram for target and no target scenarios. The true M...Figure 42.16 Stochastic exploration of large SAR data sets.Figure 42.17 Block diagram of experimental UWB‐OFDM radar system.Figure 42.18 SAR image captured with experimental system via backprojection....Figure 42.19 BER of experimental system transmitting at a data rate of 57 Mb...Figure 42.20 SAR phase history magnitude (observing a single stationary corn...Figure 42.21 Fast‐time collection after pulse compression (observing a singl...Figure 42.22 Phase history after pulse compression (observing a single stati...Figure 42.23 Phase history after pulse compression (observing a single corne...Figure 42.24 Single track extracted range history for data set in Figure 42....Figure 42.25 Phase history after pulse compression for moving radar in hallw...Figure 42.26 Phase history after pulse compression. Short sample taken from ...Figure 42.27 SAR data set computed navigation solutions, shown with and with...

9 Chapter 43aFigure 43.1 The 1419 operational satellites in orbit in 2016 (Reid [4]).Figure 43.2 Radiation dosage in silicon over a five‐year mission as a functi...Figure 43.3 The Transit “bird cage” constellation. This typically consisted ...Figure 43.4 The 66 satellite Iridium constellation in low Earth orbit (LEO) ...Figure 43.5 The OneWeb constellation of 648 satellites (Reid [4]).Figure 43.6 Slant range to the satellite.Figure 43.7 Slant range and spreading loss as a function of orbital altitude...Figure 43.8 Comparison of signal‐to‐noise ratio for Satelles Satellite Time ...Figure 43.9 Satellite mean motion and orbital period as a function of altitu...Figure 43.10 Comparison of medium and low Earth orbit (LEO) satellite distan...Figure 43.11 Satellite footprint radius as a function of orbital altitude an...Figure 43.12 Number of satellites in view as a function of latitude for the ...Figure 43.13 Iridium‐based STL test locations. These are indoor and deep att...Figure 43.14 Iridium‐based STL timekeeping results based on data from a 30‐d...Figure 43.15 Iridium‐based STL geolocation performance. This shows the conve...Figure 43.16 Roadmap to an LEO navigation system. The user position error is...Figure 43.17 Comparison of 98th percentile geometric dilution of precision (...Figure 43.18 Comparison of user HDOP (95th percentile) as a function of lati...Figure 43.19 Comparison of user vertical dilution of precision (VDOP) (95th ...Figure 43.20 Radiation dosage in silicon over a five‐year mission in LEO and...

10 Chapter 43bFigure 43.21 Existing and future LEO satellite constellations (Kassas et al....Figure 43.22 Residual errors showing the effect of (i) satellite position an...Figure 43.23 SGP4 (a) position and (b) velocity errors. (Kassas et al. [6])....Figure 43.24 Time evolution of 1 − σ bounds of (a) clock bias and...Figure 43.25 (a) Skyplot showing the trajectory of an Orbcomm LEO satellite ...Figure 43.26 Simulated delays in meters due to ionosphere and troposphere pr...Figure 43.27 Ionospheric delay rates (expressed in m/s) for seven Orbcomm sa...Figure 43.28 Orbcomm LEO satellite constellation (Morales et al. [4]).Figure 43.29 Navigation receiver: (a) Each channel is first extracted then f...Figure 43.30 Snapshot of the Orbcomm spectrum (Kassas et al. [6]).Figure 43.31 Outputs of Orbcomm receiver: (a) estimated Doppler, (b) carrier...Figure 43.32 Visualization of proposed LEO Starlink satellites (Ardito et al...Figure 43.33 Base/rover CD–LEO framework. The base, which can be a stationar...Figure 43.34 LEO‐aided INS STAN framework (Morales et al. [4]).Figure 43.35 Logarithm of the PDOP as a function of time at two positions on...Figure 43.36 Heat map of log₁₀[PDOP] for Orbcomm constellation and an 8 min ...Figure 43.37 Heat map of log₁₀[PDOP] for the Orbcomm constellation and an 8 ...Figure 43.38 Snapshot of the Starlink LEO constellation (Kassas et al. [6])....Figure 43.39 Heat map showing a snapshot of the number of visible Starlink L...Figure 43.40 Heat map showing PDOP for the Starlink LEO constellation above ...Figure 43.41 Heat map showing log₁₀[DPDOP] for the Starlink LEO constellatio...Figure 43.42 UAV simulation environment with the Globalstar, Orbcomm, and Ir...Figure 43.43 UAV simulation results with the Globalstar, Orbcomm, and Iridiu...Figure 43.44 UAV simulation environment with the Starlink LEO constellation....Figure 43.45 UAV simulation results with the Starlink LEO constellation. (a)...Figure 43.46 Experimental results showing (a) the expected and measured Dopp...Figure 43.47 Base/rover experimental setup of the CD–LEO framework (Khalife ...Figure 43.48 (a) Sky plot showing the geometry of the two Orbcomm satellites...Figure 43.49 Trajectory of the two Orbcomm satellites during the experiment,...Figure 43.50 Hardware and software setup for the ground vehicle experiment (A...Figure 43.51 (a) Skyplot of the Orbcomm satellite trajectories. (b) Doppler ...Figure 43.52 Results of the ground vehicle experiment. (a) Orbcomm satellite...Figure 43.53 Hardware and software setup for the UAV experiment (Morales et ...Figure 43.54 (a) Skyplot of the Orbcomm satellite trajectories. (b) Doppler ...Figure 43.55 Results of the UAV experiment. (a) Orbcomm satellite trajectori...

11 Chapter 44Figure 44.1 Simplified schematic of a strapdown inertial navigation system (...Figure 44.2 A simple navigation problem to illustrate the effects of errors ...Figure 44.3 Effect of initial condition errors on the navigation error versu...Figure 44.4 Outputs of an ideal sensor and a practical sensor are plotted ve...Figure 44.5 Effect of bias and noise for accelerometers and gyroscopes on th...Figure 44.6 Rotations around the north or east axes, or leveling errors, cau...Figure 44.7 Family tree for accelerometer mechanizations. All types require ...Figure 44.8 As an atom absorbs a photon, the momentum of the photon slows th...Figure 44.9 Three pairs of counterpropagating optical beams combined with a ...Figure 44.10 Schematic diagram of an accelerometer using the displacement of...Figure 44.11 Schematic diagram of an open‐loop pendulous accelerometer using...Figure 44.12 Schematic diagram of a pendulous accelerometer using the change...Figure 44.13 Schematic diagram of a pendulous accelerometer with a servo tha...Figure 44.14 Schematic diagram of a PIGA. The PIGA uses the torque of a gyro...Figure 44.15 A family tree for rotation sensing mechanizations commonly used...Figure 44.16 Schematic diagram of a single‐degree‐of‐freedom gyroscope. Cons...Figure 44.17 Schematic diagram of a two‐degree‐of‐freedom gyroscope. At oper...Figure 44.18 Larmor precession of an atom in an external magnetic field. The...Figure 44.19 Schematic diagram of an NMR gyroscope. A mixture of noble gas a...Figure 44.20 Schematic view of a vibrating string gyroscope that uses the de...Figure 44.21 Schematic view of a vibrating shell gyroscope. The position of ...Figure 44.22 Schematic view of light propagating in opposite directions arou...Figure 44.23 Schematic view of an IFOG. Light from the source, S, is coupled...Figure 44.24 Schematic view of a high‐performance IFOG using an integrated o...Figure 44.25 Schematic view of a RLG, where the frequency difference between...Figure 44.26 Schematic view of a passive ring resonator gyroscope that locks...Figure 44.27 Schematic diagram of an atomic interferometer. A cloud of atoms...Figure 44.28 Schematic diagram of a light pulse atom interferometer. The ato...Figure 44.29 Schematic diagram of a light pulse atom interferometer using du...

12 Chapter 45Figure 45.1 Left: Plan view of a 3‐axis capacitive LIS3DH accelerometer made...Figure 45.2 Optical plan view of the MEMSIC 2‐axis thermal accelerometer. Th...Figure 45.3 Scanning electron microscope (SEM) tilt‐view image of an STMicro...Figure 45.4 Example of a vibratory ring MEMS silicon gyroscope with inductiv...Figure 45.5 Left: Finite element model showing the gyroscope operating conce...Figure 45.6 Examples of commercially available MEMS IMUs. Left: Consumer‐gra...

13 Chapter 46aFigure 46.1 Position drift of inertial navigation that is caused by bias in ...Figure 46.2 Position performance of a naïve GNSS/INS integrated mechanizatio...Figure 46.3 Complementary estimation for GNSS/INS integration. Differences b...Figure 46.4 Main principle of inertial navigation. Acceleration is integrate...Figure 46.5 High‐level block diagram of strapdown INS mechanization. System ...Figure 46.6 Coning motion: the angular rate vector precesses around a certai...Figure 46.7 Example implementation of inertial navigation algorithm in MATLA...Figure 46.8 Example realization of the first‐order Gauss–Markov process. Its...Figure 46.9 Due to errors in gyro measurements, the body‐frame is computatio...Figure 46.10 Loosely coupled GNSS/INS mechanization. GNSS navigation solutio...Figure 46.11 Estimate of relative position between two GNSS antennas can be ...Figure 46.12 Test trajectory applied for the 2D simulation of a loosely coup...Figure 46.13 INS error estimation performance for the 2D simulation scenario...Figure 46.14 Two GNSS outage scenarios are implemented to illustrate the inf...Figure 46.15 GNSS/INS position performance for two outage scenarios. INS dri...Figure 46.16 Tightly coupled GNSS/INS implementation. GNSS measurements (suc...Figure 46.17 Satellite and receiver geometry involved in formulation of rang...Figure 46.18 Deeply integrated GNSS/INS implementation. Deep integration ext...Figure 46.19 Example implementation of deeply integrated GPS/INS system for ...Figure 46.20 Example implementation of deep GPS/INS integration that is cons...Figure 46.21 GNSS/inertial synchronization approach: GNSS and IMU measuremen...Figure 46.22 Example implementation of synchronization module for time stamp...Figure 46.23 Time‐synchronized processing of GNSS and inertial measurements....Figure 46.24 Measurement quality monitoring for detection and exclusion of o...Figure 46.25 Example test environments in San Francisco, California. Typical...Figure 46.26 Typical performance of GNSS position solution in downtown envir...Figure 46.27 Performance of loosely coupled GNSS/INS mechanization in urban ...Figure 46.28 Performance of tightly coupled GNSS/INS mechanization in urban ...Figure 46.29 Performance of tightly coupled GNSS/INS mechanization; consumer...Figure 46.30 Performance of tightly coupled GNSS/INS mechanization with cons...Figure 46.31 Position solution of multi‐sensor fusion mechanization that com...Figure 46.32 Second test example of multi‐sensor solution that fuses consume...Figure 46.33 Example test environment for demonstrating the capabilities of ...Figure 46.34 GPS‐only solution in dense forestry areas: very sparse position...Figure 46.35 Position solution of the deeply integrated GPS/INS implementati...Figure 46.36 Trajectory reconstruction results without measurement quality m...Figure 46.37 Performance of the tightly coupled GPS/INS implementation. Cont...

14 Chapter 46bFigure 46.38 Segmented estimator with updates.Figure 46.39 From raw inertial instrument data to final navigation outputs....Figure 46.40 Measurement geometry over time.Figure 46.41 Carrier‐phase residuals of the next‐to‐last flight segment.

15 Chapter 47Figure 47.1 The basic components of an AFR (clock) are the collection of ato...Figure 47.2 Illustration of the concepts of accuracy and stability. The plot...Figure 47.3a Energy level diagram of Rb showing the lowest energy quantum st...Figure 47.3b When a magnetic field is applied to ⁸⁷Rb atoms, the two hyperfi...Figure 47.3c Illustration of the optical absorption spectra of Rb on the res...Figure 47.4 Basic diagram of a lamp‐pumped Rb AFR, consisting of three Rb va...Figure 47.5 On top is an image of an? historic Rb AFR that was produced coll...Figure 47.6 Representative frequency instability of GPS Rb AFRs, Blocks I to...Figure 47.7 Representative diagram of Cs beam atomic frequency standard. Thi...Figure 47.8 Detected atom flux measured at the hot wire (often platinum) plu...Figure 47.9 Illustrative diagram of the design and internal structure of an ...Figure 47.10 Image of a passive hydrogen maser (PHM) used on GALILEO. ESA ph...Figure 47.11 Plot showing the expected frequency instability of some advance...Figure 47.12 Simplified diagram of the concept of a CSAC, here using the Cs ...Figure 47.13 On the left is an image of an early realization of a CSAC physi...

16 Chapter 48Figure 48.1 Temporal variations amplitude versus frequency (Marshall [11])....Figure 48.2 Twenty‐five days of temporal variations recorded At Boulder, Col...Figure 48.3 Compensation of magnetometer data to remove aircraft effects (Re...Figure 48.4 Examples of three‐axis magnetic field measurements in three near...Figure 48.5 Typical example of magnetic field variation in a university hall...Figure 48.6 Likelihood function value as a function of position for example ...Figure 48.7 Position error from hallway magnetic field positioning test. Y‐a...Figure 48.8 Example set of likelihoods at a single epoch.Figure 48.9 Maps of magnetic field navigation test routes (Images from Googl...Figure 48.10 AFIT route test results.Figure 48.11 Neighborhood route test results.Figure 48.12 Large route test results.Figure 48.13 Power spectral density of temporal variation and crustal field....Figure 48.14 Difference Between the 2012 magnetic anomaly map and the 2015 m...Figure 48.15 2012 Magnetic anomaly map over Louisa, Virginia, and 2015 fligh...Figure 48.16 Difference between the expected measurements from interpolation...Figure 48.17 North and east error over 1 h segment of flight profile.Figure 48.18 Filter estimation of temporal variations.

17 Chapter 49Figure 49.1 Example of a 2D point cloud from a Hokuyo UTM‐30LX laser range s...Figure 49.2 Example of a 3D point cloud from a Velodyne HDL‐64E multi‐apertu...Figure 49.3 Example of a 3D point cloud from a structured light 3D imager (O...Figure 49.4 Laser/inertial integration example using a complementary Kalman ...Figure 49.5 Line extraction example: the split‐and‐merge method.Figure 49.6 Split‐and‐merge line extraction results using SICK‐360 van test ...Figure 49.7 Calculation of the shortest point to the line for each point (So...Figure 49.8 Line extraction example with line segments and associated standa...Figure 49.9 Two‐dimensional (2D) feature‐based laser navigation using line f...Figure 49.10 Two‐dimensional (2D) feature‐based laser navigation using line ...Figure 49.11 Two‐dimensional (2D) feature‐based laser navigation using line ...Figure 49.12 Extraction of the two‐dimensional (2D) algorithm to three dimen...Figure 49.13 Feature‐based laser/inertial integration.Figure 49.14 Complementary Kalman filter (CKF) for inertial error estimation...Figure 49.15 Basic principle of feature‐based SLAM.Figure 49.16 Feature‐based EKF_SLAM algorithm.Figure 49.17 Feature‐based SLAM data association (Bailey [18]).Figure 49.18 EKF‐SLAM (yellow) versus GPS (blue).Figure 49.19 FastSLAM mechanization.Figure 49.20 Front‐end and back‐end processing for graph‐based SLAM methods....Figure 49.21 Example of a factor graph used for offline processing of data u...Figure 49.22 Example of using iterative closest point (ICP) on actual point ...Figure 49.23 Complementary Kalman filter (CKF) for inertial error estimation...Figure 49.24 Map lookup function (Vadlamani and Uijt de Haag [44]).Figure 49.25 Gradient‐based search method to find the lateral error offset (...Figure 49.26 Airborne laser‐scanner system (ALS)‐based terrain navigator usi...Figure 49.27 Dual ALS (DALS)‐based terrain navigator without a known terrain...Figure 49.28 (a) Feedforward and (b) feedback coupled dual airborne laser‐sc...Figure 49.29 Simulation results for the dual airborne laser‐scanner system (...Figure 49.30 Dual airborne laser‐scanner system/inertial navigation system (...Figure 49.31 Basic principle of forming an occupancy grid (gray: misses, bla...Figure 49.32 Example of an occupancy grid with a superimposed aerial robot t...Figure 49.33 Pose estimation based on matching the laser scan against availa...Figure 49.34 FastSLAM method using occupancy grids instead of features.Figure 49.35 (a) GridSLAM map and trajectory results, (b) trajectories of al...Figure 49.36 Small unmanned aircraft system (sUAS) mapping results for Ohio ...Figure 49.37 sUAS mapping results for Ohio University Stocker Center third f...

18 Chapter 50Figure 50.1 Simple imaging system model. The imaging system transforms the s...Figure 50.2 Camera frame definition.Figure 50.3 Commonly used camera pinhole model.Figure 50.4 Mapping from 3D camera coordinates to 2D normalized coordinates,...Figure 50.5 Image plane for a n_x × n_y image, showing the relationship betwee...Figure 50.6 Relationship between the camera frame (and virtual image plane),...Figure 50.7 Sample feature extraction. In this image, notional features are ...Figure 50.8 Harris corner extraction example image.Figure 50.9 Harris corner edge response function.Figure 50.10 Harris corner metric sample results.Figure 50.11 Sample line extraction. In this image, lines are detected using...Figure 50.12 Frequency response of the Gaussian blur filter for varying blur...Figure 50.13 Impulse response of the difference of the Gaussian filter.Figure 50.14 Frequency response of the difference of the Gaussian filter. Th...Figure 50.15 Sample image of airfield.Figure 50.16 Sample image scale decomposition. As the filter center frequenc...Figure 50.17 Sample 12‐Segment FAST Feature Detection Nucleus. The center pi...Figure 50.18 Sample feature matching exercise. A feature descriptor from Fra...Figure 50.19 Sample unconstrained correspondence. In this case, a correspond...Figure 50.20 Stochastic feature prediction. Optical features of interest are...Figure 50.21 Epipolar geometry.Figure 50.22 Epipolar geometry for a landmark of interest.Figure 50.23 Two‐view geometry navigation processing example.Figure 50.24 Comparison of PnP error distribution between 6DOF (position and...Figure 50.25 Example of monocular imaging scale ambiguity. In this figure, t...Figure 50.26 Example of stereoscopic ranging. The depth of landmarks “A” and...Figure 50.27 Example of forced perspective imaging. In this photograph, the ...Figure 50.28 Example of automated attitude stabilization by tracking paralle...Figure 50.29 Overview of image‐aided inertial algorithm. Inertial measuremen...Figure 50.30 Comparison of image‐aided inertial navigation solutions for ind...

19 Chapter 51Figure 51.1 Evolution of photogrammetric equipment: (a) early large‐format a...Figure 51.2 Georeferencing/navigation concepts.Figure 51.3 High‐resolution CCD sensor with main parametersFigure 51.4 Linear‐sensor‐based high‐resolution multispectral camera by Leic...Figure 51.5 Examples of image degradation.Figure 51.6 Geometric model of the pinhole camera.Figure 51.7 Coordinate systems in photogrammetry.Figure 51.8 Pixel and photo‐coordinate system.Figure 51.9 Interior parameters.Figure 51.10 Barrel (a) and pincushion (b) distortions.Figure 51.11 Image (a) taken with wide‐angle optics and (b) after distortion...Figure 51.12 Relationship between the image and object space.Figure 51.13 Classical airborne case of stereo photogrammetry.Figure 51.14 Epipolar constraints.Figure 51.15 Overview of the typical photogrammetric processing workflow.Figure 51.16 Tie and ground control points (GCPs) in aerial photogrammetry....Figure 51.17 Calibration targets.Figure 51.18 Generated tie points from a UAS image.Figure 51.19 Simple bundle adjustment example (Triggs et al. [32]).Figure 51.20 Result of the bundle adjustment: georeferenced image planes and...Figure 51.21 Epipolar resampling.Figure 51.22 Left image, right image and disparity.Figure 51.23 Orthorectification.Figure 51.24 Examples of close‐range and indoor photogrammetric applications...Figure 51.25 Parameters of the aerial flight planning.Figure 51.26 Rotary‐ and fixed‐wing UAVs: (a) DJI Phantom, (b) Bergen custom...Figure 51.27 Spectral bands of three satellite systems (UB – Ultra Blue, B –...

20 Chapter 52Figure 52.1 Plaque attached to the face of the Pioneer 10 (1972) and 11 (197...Figure 52.2 The Unconventional Stellar Aspect (USA) instrument located on th...Figure 52.3 Example X‐ray photon intensity profile of Crab Nebula pulsar, PS...Figure 52.4 Example X‐ray photon intensity profile of pulsar PSR B1509‐58 wi...Figure 52.5 Neutron star with separate rotation and magnetic axes (Sheikh [2...Figure 52.6 Crab Nebula and Pulsar (PSR B0531+21) in the X‐ray band as obser...Figure 52.7 Several types of X‐ray celestial sources plotted along the Galac...Figure 52.8 Comparisons of two GRB measurements for GRB080727B using two sep...Figure 52.9 Pulse arrivals from distant individual pulsars as they arrive at...Figure 52.10 Range vectors from a single pulsar to Earth and spacecraft loca...Figure 52.11 Doppler frequency tracking of Crab Pulsar in RXTE orbit (Golsha...Figure 52.12 Position of spacecraft as pulses enter the solar system from a ...Figure 52.13 Relative navigation between two spacecraft observing the same v...Figure 52.14 Observation of GRB by cooperating base station and remote space...Figure 52.15 ROSAT Bright catalog source plots in right ascension and declin...

21 Chapter 53Figure 53.1 Illustration of two basic spatial reference frames (Proulx et al...Figure 53.2 Illustration of path integration, or “dead reckoning” (Chiswick ...Figure 53.3 Overview of single unit recording from place cells in the rat hi...Figure 53.4 Firing patterns for four different spatial cells. For the head d...Figure 53.5 Basic Morris Water Maze experimental setup (Samueljohn.de (own w...Figure 53.6 Mid‐line sagittal view of the human cerebral cortex illustrating...Figure 53.7 Overview of three different proposed network models of allocentr...Figure 53.8 Place field in the 3D environment of a flying bat

22 Chapter 54Figure 54.1 Examples illustrating the fascinating diversity and impressive s...Figure 54.2 A Schematic of the path of the sun through the sky. In the Northe...Figure 54.3 A Birds use the rotational center of the stars to infer a polewar...Figure 54.4 Schematic of Earth’s geomagnetic field, which in essence resembl...Figure 54.5 Birds use a magnetic inclination compass. Depicted is the scenar...

23 Chapter 55Figure 55.1 Caterpillar excavator equipped by Trimble’s GNSS‐based guidance ...Figure 55.2 Mansoura Bridge, Egypt: (a) view, (b) GNSS monitoring system’s b...Figure 55.3 Measured and smoothed relative time series of the movements of M...Figure 55.4 Tide gauge station at Waikelo (Sumba, Indonesia) with a GNSS ant...Figure 55.5 Relationships between the sensors, MMS, and mapping coordinate f...Figure 55.6 Commercial UAV mapping systems: (a) Leica Aibot X6 and (b) Trimb...Figure 55.7 Components of a Pegasus backpack MMS.Figure 55.8 V10 imaging rover: (a) rover components, (b) application in an i...

24 Chapter 56Figure 56.1 Straight rows of soybeans planted with an RTK‐GPS auto‐steered t...Figure 56.2 Manual soil sampling is labor intensive; however, the capital co...Figure 56.3 Machine‐aided soil sampling system. This is part of the Soil Inf...Figure 56.4 A soil sampling for a field will result in many maps, one map fo...Figure 56.5 Prescription nitrogen map. This map is converted to a rate contr...Figure 56.6 VR phosphorous map. Each nutrient as determined by the informati...Figure 56.7 Seeds are planted at their optimum plant density to maximize pro...Figure 56.8 VR planter with electric motor drives. This type of planter can ...Figure 56.9 Without planter section control, double planting of seeds at the...Figure 56.10 With planter section control, double planting of seeds at the e...Figure 56.11 Yield map. The color differences indicate differences in yield....Figure 56.12 Land leveling with a high‐vertical‐accuracy RTK GNSS which is u...Figure 56.13 Map showing variable rate (VR) zone prescription. Different soi...Figure 56.14 Example scatter plot of positions recording for 24 hours using ...

25 Chapter 57Figure 57.1 One of the first PDA‐based navigation products, 2002.Figure 57.2 TomTom GO Portable Navigation Device, 2004.Figure 57.3 Fitbit activity tracker, measures steps, stairs, and sleep (2013...Figure 57.4 Pebble smartwatch (2013).Figure 57.5 Apple smartwatch (2016).Figure 57.6 The wearable body‐mapping sleeve.Figure 57.7 Intel MICA bracelet (2014).Figure 57.8 Photoplethysmogram (PPG).Figure 57.9 MEMS microcantilever resonating inside a scanning electron micro...Figure 57.10 Example of an MEMS gyroscope.Figure 57.11 Acceleration data from the x‐axis of an accelerometer generated...Figure 57.12 Acceleration data combined from all axes.Figure 57.13 TomTom device with OHR sensor (2016).Figure 57.14 Commonly accepted BMI ranges.Figure 57.15 Temp Traq temperature sensor patch (2015).Figure 57.16 Comparison of wireless technologies (numbers are indicative).Figure 57.17 Global wearables forecast 2014–2020.

26 Chapter 58Figure 58.1 Accuracy of an automated steering farm tractor using differentia...Figure 58.2 Path generation using a GPS‐guided John Deere tractor.Figure 58.3 Stanford Team with the GPS‐guided John Deere tractor.Figure 58.4 GNSS‐guided farm tractor performing precision tilling in Auburn,...Figure 58.5 GNSS control of a towed implement (Bevly and Parkinson [15])....Figure 58.6 Precision planting (no marker arms required).Figure 58.7 Cooperative farm operation (combine unloading onto grain cart du...Figure 58.8 Example of precision crops (left) post planting and (right) pre‐...Figure 58.9 Follow‐up farm operations of (left) cultivating and (right) harv...Figure 58.10 Concept autonomous tractors from Case IH and John Deere.Figure 58.11 Example vehicles from the inaugural DARPA Grand Challenge.Figure 58.12 First DARPA Grand Challenge course and finishing position for a...Figure 58.13 Images from the First DARPA Grand Challenge.Figure 58.14 Route for the second DARPA Grand Challenge race.Figure 58.15 Oshkosh TerraMax at the finish line of the second DARPA Grand C...Figure 58.16 Google self‐driving Prius with a roof‐mounted Velodyne LiDAR an...Figure 58.17 Automated vehicle legislation across the United States as of De...Figure 58.18 GPS velocity measurements from a static receiver.Figure 58.19 GPS velocity direction of travel measurement accuracies as a fu...Figure 58.20 Schematic demonstrating the use of multiple antennas on a body ...Figure 58.21 Attitude accuracy as a function of antenna baseline spacing.Figure 58.22 Stanford's autonomous racing Audi with dual antennas for high d...Figure 58.23 Automated truck convoys utilizing dual antennas for vehicle hea...Figure 58.24 Multiple antennas for correcting GNSS positions at the roof to ...Figure 58.25 Carrier‐phase differential GNSS exploits the temporal and spati...Figure 58.26 Platooning with short separation distances is possible with hig...Figure 58.27 Spatial and temporal differential GNSS techniques can be levera...Figure 58.28 Current and previous positions of the lead and following vehicl...Figure 58.29 Comparison of single‐frequency (L1) and dual‐frequency (L1/L2) ...Figure 58.30 An autonomous vehicle can use Dynamic base Real Time Kinematic ...Figure 58.31 Plot of single‐frequency (L1) and dual‐frequency (L1/L2) mean i...Figure 58.32 Plot of the integer ratio test result for single‐frequency and ...Figure 58.33 Plot of the stability of the east or north components of three ...Figure 58.34 Plot of the stability of the stand‐alone GPS (red) and TDCP (bl...Figure 58.35 Planar vehicle model schematic.Figure 58.36 Schematic of lateral tire forces versus tire slip angle of a ty...Figure 58.37 Longitudinal tire force versus longitudinal slip under various ...Figure 58.38 Auburn University Infiniti G35 equipped with IMU, CAN measureme...Figure 58.39 Vehicle yaw rate (left) and side slip (right) during a driving ...Figure 58.40 GPS velocity compared to wheel speed derived velocity and the r...Figure 58.41 Longitudinal force (estimated from longitudinal acceleration) v...Figure 58.42 GNSS‐based estimation of tire radius for various tire pressures...Figure 58.43 GPS/INS block diagram.Figure 58.44 Plot of GPS and GPS/INS course accuracy as a function of vehicl...Figure 58.45 Multi‐antenna GPS and multi‐antenna GPS/gyro attitude accuracy ...Figure 58.46 Vehicle steering wheel angle (at the handwheel) and yaw rate fo...Figure 58.47 GPS/INS‐estimated vehicle (and error) from the double‐lane‐chan...Figure 58.48 GPS/INS‐estimated vehicle roll (and error) from the double‐lane...Figure 58.49 Plot of estimated and measurement vehicle position in the geode...Figure 58.50 GPS/INS‐estimated side slip during the maneuver shown.Figure 58.51 Tire force on an asphalt surface.Figure 58.52 Tire force on a gravel surface.Figure 58.53 Block diagram of a Kalman filter that utilizes both IMU measure...Figure 58.54 Plot of east and north IMU dead‐reckoning solution with no cons...Figure 58.55 Plot of the horizontal error with respect to the reference solu...Figure 58.56 Plot comparing the estimated longitudinal speed derived from IM...Figure 58.57 Block diagram of Kalman filter‐based navigation system fusing G...Figure 58.58 Plot of stand‐alone GPS (red), GPS/INS (blue), and GPS/INS/VDM ...Figure 58.59 Block diagram of a Kalman‐filter‐based navigation system fusing...Figure 58.60 Conceptual depiction of the four scans of the LiDAR that are us...Figure 58.61 Plot of navigation solutions for stand‐alone GPS, GPS/INS, and ...Figure 58.62 Road map lateral constraints and satellite signal with line‐of‐...Figure 58.63 Picture of urban canyon showing that the line of sight in the l...Figure 58.64 Plot of lateral lane position estimates using only GPS/INS with...Figure 58.65 Plot of lateral lane position estimates using GPS/INS and visio...Figure 58.66 Plot of longitudinal position error of the navigation system us...Figure 58.67 Plot of longitudinal position error of the navigation system us...Figure 58.68 Plot of the estimated vehicle position using only INS and LiDAR...Figure 58.69 Plot of north and east position errors of the navigation soluti...Figure 58.70 Plot comparing pseudorange only (red), GPS/INS (yellow), and GP...Figure 58.71 Plots comparing vector tracking GPS receiver position estimates...Figure 58.72 Auburn University demonstration of truck platooning at 50 foot ...Figure 58.73 States having passed legislation allowing close gap truck plato...Figure 58.74 Fuel savings results versus gap spacing from an SAE Type 2 fuel...Figure 58.75 Delphi electronically scanning radar range compared to Dynamic ...Figure 58.76 Auburn University’s NCAT test track demonstrating loss of range...Figure 58.77 Output for the 64 Channel Delphi Electronically Scanning Radar ...Figure 58.78 Dynamic base Real Time Kinematic (DRTK)‐based classification of...Figure 58.79 GPS‐estimated road grade and resulting following distance error...Figure 58.80 GPS‐estimated road grade and resulting following distance error...Figure 58.81 GPS road grade estimate compared to the profilometer‐measured r...Figure 58.82 Spoofing detection algorithm based on radar ranges versus GPS‐g...Figure 58.83 Conceptual diagram showing the selection of the desired aiming ...Figure 58.84 The desired following vehicle heading (Ψ_R) is calculated u...Figure 58.85 Diagram showing the experimental setup for the lead and followi...Figure 58.86 Plots of the paths of the lead and following vehicle during tes...Figure 58.87 Plot of total lateral path error (gray) and the reference path ...

27 Chapter 59Figure 59.1 Track circuit principle.Figure 59.2 ERTMS level 1.Figure 59.3 ERTMS Level 2 (L2).Figure 59.4 ERTMS Level 3.Figure 59.5 The position error components.Figure 59.6 Standard deviation of the overbounding Gaussian distribution nor...Figure 59.7 Deployment of a virtual balise (VB) protecting a supervised loca...Figure 59.8 High‐integrity, high‐accuracy two‐tier architecture.Figure 59.9 Augmentation network architecture – 2nd Tier.Figure 59.10 Multipath effects in rail scenarios (yellow: standalone GNSS, r...Figure 59.11 Computation of confidence interval.Figure 59.12 Train localization geometry.Figure 59.13 Reference station sites.Figure 59.14 Stanford diagram – scenario #1 (Neri et al. [7]).Figure 59.15 Number of satellites used in the PVT estimation – scenario #1 (...Figure 59.16 Stanford diagram – satellite faults (Neri et al. [7]).Figure 59.17 Number of satellites used for PVT estimation – satellite faults...Figure 59.18 Baseline geometry.Figure 59.19 GPS+GLONASS RTK train locations (red circles) Rome–Cassino rail...Figure 59.20 A posteriori probability of each hypothesis (true track in blue...Figure 59.21 Train mileage versus time.Figure 59.22 Geometry‐free combination (L1‐L2) (Hsu et al. [11]; Beitler et ...Figure 59.23 Multiple‐track geometry.

28 Chapter 60Figure 60.1 UTM architecture (Aweiss et al. [24]).Figure 60.2 General hierarchy of guidance, navigation, and control (GNC) fun...Figure 60.3 Autonomy of a commercial multi‐copter platform in presence of GP...Figure 60.4 Geo‐fenced field next to a school.Figure 60.5 Conceptual boundaries for assured containment in NASA’s Safeguar...Figure 60.6 (a)Left: Modeled trajectory of a multi‐rotor UAS after flight te...Figure 60.7 Two approaches to estimate the time to closest point of approach...Figure 60.8 Horizontal distance to CPA or horizontal missed distance (HMD), ...Figure 60.9 Hazard Zone, Alert Zone, and Non‐Hazard Zone for the “τ_mod”‐crit...Figure 60.10 Well clear threshold, or WCT; and NMAC (not to scale).This ...Figure 60.11 Depiction of predicted well clear using conflict probes. Top: C...Figure 60.12 Accounting for measurement uncertainty in UAS SAA (Jamoom et al...Figure 60.13 Examples of Ohio University sUAS operations in challenging envi...Figure 60.14 Observation of planar surfaces using multiple laser scans taken...Figure 60.15 Laser‐based terrain navigator with one or two laser range scann...Figure 60.16 Use of three laser range scanners (“a” and “b”) for 2D pose est...Figure 60.17 Example of an outdoor‐indoor flight scenario where the pose est...Figure 60.18 Left: GNSS (red) and laser‐based navigation (green) trajectorie...Figure 60.19 Visual odometry results using direct sparse odometry (DSO) (Eng...

29 Chapter 61Figure 61.1 Example use of public key cryptography for aviation data authent...Figure 61.2 Use of GNSS augmentation to support various flight operations, a...Figure 61.3 DME transponder response to interrogations from the aircraft DME...Figure 61.4 The ideal DME transmission is a pair of Gaussian pulses. The pul...Figure 61.5 TACAN amplitude modulation relative to azimuth showing the overl...Figure 61.6 Similarity between nominal DME and DME passive ranging operation...Figure 61.7 DME interrogation‐reply frequency pairings for different codes b...Figure 61.8 ILS Localizer showing notional gain patterns of the two carrier ...Figure 61.9 ILS avionics cockpit guidance display (aircraft needs to go up a...Figure 61.10 Instrument landing system (FAA [31]).Figure 61.11 Bearing measurement from VOR (θ). The angle measured is the sam...Figure 61.12 Angle measurement from NDB (γ). Angle measured depends on aircr...Figure 61.13 Captured over‐the‐air and ideal Mode S transmission.Figure 61.14 UAT frame and transmission structure.Figure 61.15 One‐second UAT frame is organized into two segments with guard ...Figure 61.16 Height difference with temperature difference of 5° from ISA st...Figure 61.17 Difference between GPS and baro‐altitude on balloon flight.

30 Chapter 62Figure 62.1 Mean magnitude of accelerations experienced by a spacecraft in c...Figure 62.2 Flowchart of the LEO POD process. (PPP: Precise Point‐Positionin...Figure 62.3 Large, systematic excursions in post‐fit residuals from orbit de...Figure 62.4 Available GPS signals to an Earth‐orbiting spacecraftOther G...Figure 62.5 The number of GPS main lobe signals (boresight angle of 44°) ava...Figure 62.6 One of the twin GRACE spacecraft. The GPS choke‐ring antenna (at...Figure 62.7 The Jason‐3 spacecraft. The twin, canted GPS choke‐ring antennas...Figure 62.8 Post‐fit residuals (pseudorange, top left, phase, top right) and...

31 Chapter 63Figure 63.1 Range of achievable GNSS navigation accuracies using absolute an...Figure 63.2 International fleet of space vehicles using GPS for far‐range na...Figure 63.3 Graphical illustration of PRISMA technology demonstration missio...Figure 63.4 Graphical illustration of MMS formation‐flying mission in high e...Figure 63.5 Graphical illustration of CPOD (left), https://www.nasa.gov. Tyv...Figure 63.6 Spherical coordinates.Figure 63.7 Contours of constant semi‐major axis (SMA) error (blue lines) sh...Figure 63.8 Target centered relative motion plot during STS‐69 in LVLH frame...Figure 63.9 Difference of real‐time onboard navigation solution versus post‐...Figure 63.10 Long‐term analysis of real‐time relative orbit elements (ROEs) ...Figure 63.11 GEONS’ 1σ formal error (root‐covariance) over three orbits...

32 Chapter 64Figure 64.1 Summer Arctic sea ice extent 1980–2012.Figure 64.2 (a) Arctic airports and (b) transpolar air routes (Reid et al. [...Figure 64.3 Maximum extent of Arctic and Antarctic waters as described in th...Figure 64.4 Illustration of how angular rotations measured by compasses and ...Figure 64.5 GNSS setup for hydrographic surveying. This three‐antenna system...Figure 64.6 Ground tracks of (a) GPS and (b) combined GPS, GLONASS, Galileo,...Figure 64.7 Skyplot of GPS and EGNOS satellites at 71°30’ North in the Baren...Figure 64.8 The effect of snow accumulation on a GNSS antenna. The heavy sno...Figure 64.9 Typical layout and components of a Class‐3 Dynamic Positioning (...Figure 64.10 Different sensors and elements used for ice detection and safe ...Figure 64.11 Icebreaker escorting a seismic vessel through open drift ice on...Figure 64.12 Point cloud map of a LiDAR scan of a portion of the Helheim Gla...Figure 64.13 Benefits of information crowdsourcing and crowdsharing in ice n...Figure 64.14 The ESABALT crowdsourcing and crowdsharing ecosystem for improv...Figure 64.15 To model ship maneuverability, a finite set of directions in wh...Figure 64.16 Heat map of transit speeds in sea ice conditions with an optimi...Figure 64.17 SBAS ground segment: Reference stations of all current systems ...Figure 64.18 Orbits of the GPS constellation, SBAS GEO space segment, Quasi‐...Figure 64.19 SBAS aviation service level in 2015 using single‐frequency GPS....Figure 64.20 SBAS aviation service slated for 2026 using dual frequency and ...