Читать книгу The SAGE Encyclopedia of Stem Cell Research - Группа авторов - Страница 94

American Association for the Advancement of Science

American Association for the Advancement of Science

39

44

American Association for the Advancement of Science

Created on September 20, 1848, the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) serves as a not-for-profit forum that works to address various issues facing the scientific community in the United States. During the debate regarding stem cell research that erupted in 2001, the AAAS supported the use of embryonic stem cells as a means of ameliorating or curing the many conditions and diseases that might be affected by such work. The AAAS has served as one of the staunchest advocates for stem cell research, although it has also encouraged the development of ethical guidelines that would prevent misuse and abuse of such research. As a leading forum for discussions regarding such studies, the AAAS has taken a leading role in developing support for stem cell research.

Background

Founded in Philadelphia, the AAAS seeks to better humanity through advocating for cooperation among scientists, promoting scientific education, fostering scientific responsibility, encouraging scientific outreach, and coordinating scientific outreach. Although it had grown to over 2,000 members by 1860, the AAAS became inactive during the American Civil War, as the conflict interrupted communications between faculty at northern and southern colleges and universities. Revived in 1866, the AAAS saw considerable growth in the postwar period. While many other scientific organizations began during the post-bellum era, the AAAS’s appeal was its mission to bring together scientists from various disciplines.

Organized in sections, each of these subdivisions is responsible for a specific area of concern to the AAAS. Currently, the 24 sections of the AAAS are agriculture, anthropology, astronomy, atmospheric science, biological science, chemistry, computer science, dentistry, education, engineering, general interest science, geology and geography, history and philosophy of science, linguistics, mathematics, medical science, neuroscience, pharmaceutical science, physics, psychology, science and human rights, social and political science, the social impact of science and technology, statistics, and technology. When significant debates involving science arise, the AAAS sometimes issues advisory papers and other advice regarding their resolution.

Response to Bush Administration Policy on Stem Cell Research

Stem cell research potentially can provide cures for many diseases and conditions. It can do this through undifferentiated biological cells differentiating into specialized cells, replacing cells that have been damaged by disease or other medical conditions. Embryonic stem cells, which are pluripotent stem cells derived from the inner cell mass of an early-stage pre-implantation embryo, are the most useful for stem cell research because of the many types of cells into which they can potentially differentiate. Because the harvesting of embryonic stem cells requires the destruction of the blastocyst (embryo), the process has proven highly controversial because of various ethical issues that have been raised. After 2001, President George W. Bush implemented funding policies that restricted stem cell research to existing stem cell lines.

In response to this decision, in 2001 the AAAS issued a statement regarding President Bush’s position on stem cell research. The AAAS embraced the decision to provide federal funding for human embryonic stem cell research, emphasizing its potential therapeutic value for the millions of Americans now suffering from debilitating diseases. In particular, the AAAS stated support for the Bush administration’s concern that stem cell research proceed in an ethical manner that would engender confidence in the American public. This support, however, was tempered by the decision to limit researchers who receive federal funding to the use of existing stem cell lines. While the AAAS did not object to this policy per se, it did suggest that several issues needed to be resolved before the efficacy of this rule could be judged.

The AAAS suggested that several issues could possibly impede the Bush policy regarding stem cell research. First, the AAAS noted that the Bush administration based its policy on the existence of 60 embryonic stem cell lines that could be used by federally funded scientists. Because many AAAS members questioned that number, suggesting that it was in reality much lower, the AAAS requested that the number of available stem cell lines be verified to eliminate confusion regarding this matter. Second, the AAAS noted that for stem cells to be of high quality for research purposes, they need to be genetically variable. This is required so that researchers can account for genetic differences in the growth and development of stem cells. Although the Bush administration had stated that the cell lines to be used for federally funded research were located in geographically diverse areas throughout the world, it was unknown where these cell lines originated. The AAAS therefore requested verification that the stem cell lines were diverse in their origin.

Third, the AAAS asked that the Bush administration disclose who derived and controlled the available cell lines and what restrictions it placed on access to them. Doing so would permit the public to judge whether procedural obstacles linked to intellectual property interests or excessive costs might be faced by federally funded studies. Fourth, the AAAS asked for information regarding how many of the existing cell lines were derived in a manner that met or exceeded ethical standards expected by the American public. The AAAS stated that frequently the procedures used in other parts of the world in research with human subjects failed to meet the ethical standards expected in the United States. Fifth, the AAAS suggested that the proposed Council on Bioethics, which was charged with recommending guidelines and making recommendations for stem cell research as well as other biomedical advances, address certain questions. These questions related to the makeup of the council, the scope of its mandate, and the process by which it would conduct business. Finally, the AAAS asked that Bush administration policy be periodically reassessed so that possible changes could be made in order for the benefits of stem cell research to be fully realized.

Other Issues

In 2002, the AAAS endorsed a legally enforceable ban on efforts to implant a human cloned embryo for reproduction. This position was based upon scientific evidence suggesting serious health risks associated with reproductive cloning. At this time, the AAAS also endorsed stem cell research, including that which utilizes nuclear transplantation techniques, sometimes called therapeutic cloning. The AAAS made this endorsement in the hope that the public would be able to enjoy the enormous potential health benefits offered by this technology. Because such benefits were still many years away, however, the AAAS cautioned that such studies must involve carefully designed research and be subject to peer review. Recognizing the many religious, ethical, and social concerns raised by the prospect of creating stem cells for research purposes, the AAAS asked that cloning research proceed only under the federal government’s close scrutiny of studies conducted in both the public and private sectors.

The AAAS later broke with the Bush administration, supporting legislation that would have expanded federal support for embryonic stem cell research. This legislation, known as the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act of 2007, was vetoed by President Bush. This act would have mandated that stem cell research be allowed to compete for federal funding while following strict ethical guidelines. In its place, an executive order was issued that continued the policy of permitting research only into extant stem cell lines, which the AAAS noted were fewer than 20. In particular, the AAAS noted that stem cell research offered tremendous promise for those suffering from conditions such as diabetes, spinal cord injuries, and Parkinson’s disease. The AAAS suggested that the Bush administration’s failure to permit reasonable research into these areas impeded progress in these significant areas.

After his election in 2008, President Barack Obama removed many of the restrictions on stem cell research imposed by the Bush administration. The AAAS endorsed this move. Using an executive order, Obama increased the number of stem cell lines available for funding from 20 to more than 100. The Obama administration also provided increased federal funding for this research through the National Institutes of Health (NIH). When these decisions were later challenged in court, the AAAS supported the Obama administration’s policies. To further support stem cell research, and to address the numerous ethical concerns related to this body of work, the AAAS has issued a variety of print and electronic resource materials to help policy makers and the public make informed decisions. While ever evolving, these resources have consistently supported the need to balance the potential value of stem cell research with the need for procedural safeguards to protect human subjects and the public.

Stephen T. Schroth

Towson University

See Also: Advocacy; Clinical Trials, Ethics of; Clinical Trials Outside the United States; International Society for Stem Cell Research; National Institutes of Health; National Science Foundation; President’s Council on Bioethics; United States.

Further Readings

Blackburn, S. Ethics: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009.

Park, A. The Stem Cell Hope: How Stem Cell Medicine Can Change Our Lives. New York: Plume, 2011.

Scott, C. T. Stem Cell Now: A Brief Introduction to the Coming Medical Revolution. New York: Plume, 2006.

Slack, J. Stem Cells: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012.