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Оглавление2 Seeing Rhetoric
Nancy Allen
It’s safe to say that rhetoric—as an approach to using words to inform, deliberate, and persuade—has been tested by the ages. Uses of rhetoric reach from the classical period of Greek civilization to modern writing classrooms, policy determinations, and political campaigns. Explanations of and guidelines for using rhetoric in written and oral communication abound.
We live, however, in a visually oriented time. According to Arthur Berger, author of numerous books on culture and media, “We live in a world of things seen, a world that is visual [. . .]. Like fish, we ‘swim’ in a sea of images, and these images help shape our perceptions of the world and of ourselves” (1). Ann Marie Seward Barry, author of Visual Intelligence, concurs, observing, “Visual communication dominates every area of our lives” (3). We now recognize that effective communication includes more than words.
Imagine yourself about to read an essay or listen to a speech. Your first impressions begin with visual elements. Before we read the opening sentence or hear a speaker’s first words, we have already begun to form impressions from the setting, the medium, and the speaker’s appearance. These features fall within the domain of visual rhetoric. We bring a different set of expectations to reading a magazine, comic book, or the Web, to comments by a sequined rock star or a white-coated doctor, to a lecture in a museum or a chat in a coffee bar or online. Even the look of a piece of writing sets up expectations that influence how we will interact with it.
When words spread across a page
Or are in short centered lines,
We recognize
We’re in a creative space,
And our past experiences
With poetry
Influence our reading.
Visual rhetoric refers to the visual features of communication and the effects they have on readers/viewers. When we become sensitive to the visual features of our communications, we can begin using them to help us achieve our goals in writing and speaking. We also become more aware of how these features are being used to influence us.
Yet, as important as visual rhetoric is to our lives, teaching students to recognize its features and effects and to use them in achieving their own communicative purposes is a complex and difficult task. This volume is dedicated to helping with that task, and in this chapter I argue two points:
1. Visual representations can help us understand rhetorical principles. Sometimes a picture may be worth more than a thousand words—or at least a few hundred words—of explanation.
2. Visual rhetoric can be an effective tool for presenting information and persuading an audience. Examples included here will demonstrate the effectiveness of visuals in specific communications.
This chapter is not organized around assignments, nor does it describe any specific assignment in detail, as other essays in this book do. Instead, I discuss general guidelines for using visual representations for two purposes: to teach rhetorical principles and to present information in a manner intended to persuade or to inform.
Issues in Teaching Visual Rhetoric
Teaching students how to use visual rhetoric is as challenging as teaching them to use written language effectively. One reason for the difficulty stems from our educational system. As children, we are visually oriented, learning to draw before we learn to write. When we enter school, however, language, math, and science are emphasized. Development of our visual skills is usually relegated to art class, which is a small part of the school day or week; in some schools, visual training may not be included at all. Most of us lose our sensitivity to the effects visual elements have on our perceptions. Teaching visual rhetoric, then, isn’t so much teaching a new set of skills as reawakening our visual skills and developing our ways of seeing. In Marcel Proust’s words, “The real voyage of discovery consists not in seeking new landscapes but in having new eyes” (qtd. in Barry, 1).
In teaching visual rhetoric, the term rhetoric can itself be an issue. Rhetoric has an ancient lineage and is inexact, an art rather than a science. These very strengths of long history and versatility, however, raise questions for students, who are immersed in their own times and live quite differently from the way citizens in fifth century B.C.E. Athens did. Many students wonder how such an old theory can have anything to do with the issues they face and the documents they’ll be called upon to write in the academy or on the job. Students may find assignments requiring rhetoric to be boring or amusing, but few of them see a reason to take such an ancient process seriously. Rhetoric’s versatility is also a problem. Students may wonder how this system can be useful when it is so variable—when there is no set of rules for using it. Rhetoric’s heuristic strategies are broad and malleable, permitting application to various situations, but this versatility can make rhetoric confusing to writers who are being introduced to its principles.
The visual examples included in this chapter are drawn from current publications and websites to help with both problems—the understanding of rhetoric as language and visual representation, and rhetoric’s relevance to current forms of communication. These visual examples of rhetorical principles at work will connect with current communication practices, thus supporting rhetoric’s importance to today’s writers. In addition, because visual presentations aid understanding and learning, they will show how the principles of rhetoric can operate visually. Citing neurological research, Barry tells us that, “It is no longer possible to divide the process of seeing from that of understanding” (44).
Though Plato may have raged against visuals because he perceived them to be related to emotion rather than to logic, people today are comfortable with and more sophisticated in their interpretation of visuals. We know about Photoshop’s functions for mutating pictures or for morphing one image into another: We know, for example, that people can be added to or taken from a group photo for personal (divorce in a family) or political (a shift in power) reasons. What we see in images may not be factual. Yet images can be very powerful in creating responses in viewers, and they can be very helpful to understanding concepts. As Donald Norman tells us, “The easiest way to make things understandable is to use graphics or pictures” (199).
Visual Representations of Rhetorical Principles
The elements of rhetoric that can be so important to effective communication are defined in many texts, but they can also be presented visually. Visual representation may, in fact, clarify a point about a rhetorical function better than language can for some people. Here, I will focus the discussion on those rhetorical elements often used for effective communication: the persuasive appeals and the rhetorical canon. The samples described below will show how visual rhetoric can incorporate these elements in communications.
Persuasive Appeals
Three rhetorical appeals—logos (the appeal through reason), ethos (the appeal through values and the speaker/writer’s character, credibility, and integrity), and pathos (the appeal through emotions)—undergird Aristotelian rhetorical analysis (Corbett 15). We’ll begin here with logos, which generally gets the most attention and respect in writing classes.
Logos. Aristotle established in The Rhetoric that good arguments are based on good reasons, reasons that are valid, appropriate to the topic discussed, and valued by the audience. It is common practice to articulate those reasons substantially through words. However, in our attempts to inform or to persuade we miss an opportunity if we limit ourselves to words alone. We’re familiar with visuals in their supporting roles, through which they organize and emphasize information. We see examples in colored maps, such as those representing states as red or blue depending on the outcome of their presidential vote; and in line graphs, such as those showing the rise and fall of the stock market. But visuals can play an even more persuasive role, as in the following examples.
To show how information can be carried and developed within a design, Anne Frances Wysocki describes differences in her interactions with two CD-ROMs about art collections: “The differences between the visual presentations of these CDs are differences of assertion and thought” (224). She further explains that various features of the design “might conventionally be called form, and yet clearly they too have carried significant argumentative weight” (231). These design differences influenced Wysocki’s impressions of the collections, one collection being focused, she believed, on the collector and other focused on the works of art. Such impressions influenced the understandings that she formed as she viewed the images and textual information of the collection. Such an in-class analysis and comparison of CD-ROMs or of websites on similar topics might help students begin to see ways in which the design of information influences their opinions.
Visuals can also add information and nuances that serve as elements of the argument itself. In an interview, lawyer Fred Steingold explained how he sometimes uses visuals in making arguments in court. He described a case in which his client was being sued by a neighbor for damages that might or might not have been caused by the client’s sewer during a backup. The lawyer created a poster six feet long, with the client’s property represented on one end and his neighbor’s on the other. The lawyer wanted the length of the poster to illustrate to the jury the long distances involved in the case, which would allow for the possibility of another cause. Though the actual distances were much greater than six feet, the long poster in the courtroom gave the impression of length that the lawyer needed for his argument. He also added small cleaning buckets at each end of his poster to minimize the interpretation of the clean up required. These visuals weren’t designed simply to get attention or act as interesting diversions; they provided content, information for the jury to interpret that contributed to the lawyer’s argument. In another case in which a man fell from a roof, the lawyer first had photos taken of rivets sticking up on the roof. Because the photos didn’t show clear distinctions between the rivets and the roof, he hired an artist to draw the roof, showing the rivets more clearly. When the rivets could be seen protruding from the roof, the risk they could present became more understandable. In both of these instances, the visual representations contributed to the logical reasoning of the arguments being offered. The facts didn’t change, but the visual representations influenced how they were interpreted. Similar techniques can be practiced in the classroom. For example, in writing their own persuasive reports, students can look for instances in which “seeing” the situation can add to and help clarify the information provided in their reports.
A third example occurs as an illustration in a professional journal. After several years of work, a group of geneticists and biochemists prepared an article for the February 16, 2001 issue of Science to explain the
sequencing of the human genome (Venter et al.). Illustrations
formed an important part of the logos of their presentation. The article ran from page 1304 to 1351 and included 16 figures and 19 tables to clarify readers’ understanding of the genome’s very complex structure and the scientists’ painstaking reasoning in determining it. Several of the figures included subparts, but one was extraordinary. The first figure, the annotation of the genome assembly, was a chart inserted into the February issue. It measured 39 3/4” by 56 1/2”, yet it still required very small print to document each chromosome in tracks, displayed as a nucleotide scale and color coded to define the structure. Though it would require extensive education to read the chart accurately, any viewer is immediately aware of the immense complexity of what is being illustrated. The chart’s size and detail impress viewers with the careful and thorough work that must have been required to produce the data represented there. As pointed out by Saho Tateno, a student in one of my classes who researched visual rhetoric’s uses in this article, the chart itself presents an argument for the importance and likely accuracy of the content presented. “When people unfold such a large map, they feel as if they explore the world of the human genome” (12), she wrote. The visual rhetoric of the outsized first figure was crucial to achieving the writers’ goals of providing detailed information and persuading readers of its credibility and importance. These goals would not have been achieved as well with words alone.
Ethos. The appeal through ethos, that is, through the speaker or writer’s character, credibility, and integrity and through community values, is often subtly indicated by clues rather than direct statement—for example, through a professional or governmental title under the author’s name, the source (e.g., professional journal or e-zine) in which a piece is published, or the stylish clothing or haircut sported by a speaker. Clues such as these encourage us to attribute certain qualities of education, authority, or sophistication to individuals. (Titles such as “The Military” and “Business Cut” given to haircut styles in Figure 1 illustrate that relating hair-style cues to ethos is an old idea.) Although we all recognize that images are being created by such visual cues, we may not be aware that they are being used to persuade us of something. When President George W. Bush wanted to show his commitment to the environment, he toured Sequoia National Park for photo ops beside the big trees. When Michael Dukakis needed to bolster the toughness of his image during his presidential campaign, he had his picture taken in a tank. (Ironically, because Dukakis was shown in a helmet that was much too big for him, the image backfired.) University websites include pictures of students involved in campus activities to show the school’s dedication to students, and clinics are careful to append MD or DO after names on the medical staff to assure us of the value of the care and advice offered there. The clinics could save money on ad space by leaving the degree information out, but that wouldn’t achieve the same effect. We use visual design to enhance ethos and personal image; Susan Hilligoss and Tharon Howard, however, warn that “inappropriate format or jarring visual choices may make the document less credible” (2). To use visual rhetoric effectively, then, we must be careful to consider each item’s appropriateness to our audiences and purpose.
In searching websites for interesting uses of rhetoric, Sara Maurer, a student in one of my classes, found a complex use of ethos in the images used to present a new medication, Seasonale. The website, describing the medication and its uses, featured the image of “a smiling, well dressed woman who represents as many consumers as possible with one image. The woman has dark hair, dark eyes, and a medium complexion. Her ambiguity is intentional: she could be Caucasian, Latin, Middle Eastern, etc.; she could be as young as twenty and as old as forty; she could be single or married; rich or middleclass” (4). No matter what group she represented, she was definitely vibrant and attractive. Maurer also reported the uses of color and authority on the site that contributed to the image of the drug and the manufacturing company. “Whereas the rest of the page comprises purples and pinks, ‘FDA-approved’ is yellow. And where the rest of the text is horizontal, this insertion is at a 20-degree angle. [. . .] Approval by the FDA, as a federal regulating agency, provides Seasonale instant credibility” (4). To support the credibility, the site also included images of medical experts.
A good source for finding examples of the appeal through ethos is personal websites. In a recent Wired article about websites for presidential candidates Kerry and Bush, Adam Penenberg commented, “In the end, it may not matter what kind of information appears on the candidates’ websites, as long as they have a cool design” (1). He referred to the results from a 2002 Stanford study on website credibility and reported, “Nearly half of the study’s participants—about 46 percent—rated a site’s credibility based primarily on its design or look” (2). Personal websites are developed to illustrate and sometimes to promote the author’s ethos or image, which is presented first through the visuals that meet us when we open the appropriately named Splash page or the homepage. The colors and graphics chosen and the sizes of graphics and words create an immediate impression of the personal image, thus carrying the appeal through ethos. To learn more about this use of visual rhetoric, students can investigate a variety of personal websites, such as those for professionals, their favorite entertainers, and some contemporaries whom they may or may not know (if an appropriate website for a professional is a little difficult to find, a good one to check is <http://www.a2.com>, the site for a marketing consultant). After analyzing a variety of sites, students might try to design their own personal website, on a computer or on paper. Their experiences analyzing the ethos of other people’s sites should encourage them to think closely about the items they add to their own site, how they design the layout, and what messages these images and the design convey to viewers.
Pathos. Visuals are most often associated with pathos, the appeal to our emotions. Photos can evoke sympathy, and films can frighten. For instance, television news programs were prohibited from showing film of flag-draped coffins being unloaded from transport planes returning from Iraq because of the dismay that viewing large numbers of dead soldiers might have on the public. Such a focus on the human cost of war could weaken viewers’ support for the war effort. In contrast, images of the twin towers destroyed on September 11 are shown to arouse our anger toward our perceived enemies and reinforce our fear of what could happen to anyone. Of course, visual representations aren’t always connected to international issues. Through their joyous colors, balloons tied to a mailbox signal a celebration at a nearby household.
Visuals and the emotions they invoke can be put to positive use in building arguments. It is pathos, the appeal to our emotions, that is credited with adding motivation to persuasive discourse. While good reasons and the credibility of the author work to convince us of the rightness of a cause, we are often swayed more by our passions or emotions (Corbett 34), and it is emotion that inspires us to take action (99). A group of medical students at the University of Michigan has appealed visually to the emotions of their institution’s policymakers through “photovoice,” a technique used in “advocacy efforts from China to Flint to San Francisco for more than a decade” (Rueter E1). The medical students photograph patients in ways that emphasize the patients’ unmet needs and use the photos in presentations made to medical center administrators and community leaders. These students also used photovoice to argue their own need to work in outpatient clinics serving people without health insurance. As a result, medical school officials are now forging a partnership with such a clinic, in which interested students can do rotations, learning about loan-forgiveness programs and low-cost clinics.
Rhetorical Canon
In addition to providing useful tools for presenting our ideas to others, rhetorical theory also provides help for guiding us in the development of those ideas into coherent essays, articles, and presentations. Classical theory breaks the process into five steps, which together are referred to as the rhetorical canon. Each step can be illustrated through visuals to help us understand the procedure more clearly and incorporate it into our work.
Invention (inventio). We’ve all suffered from paralysis of the blank page. Before we can present a persuasive discussion, we need something to say, but what? We need to develop ideas that will help to make our case. In rhetorical theory, that process is called invention, but of course we don’t just make up imaginary facts, as the term may imply. What we invent, or develop, are topics (topoi) related to our purpose. Visual representation can be especially helpful with this step of rhetoric.
Because it is hard to come up with ideas, writing teachers have developed heuristic strategies, such as brainstorming, to stimulate our thinking, but we don’t all think in the same ways. Some people rely on manipulating language to generate ideas whereas others rely more on the right side of the brain, which is associated with our visual processes. For these individuals, visual heuristics and the overall process of visual thinking can help spark creative ideas. We can, for example, create mind maps, matrices, storyboards, and sketches as we develop our way of approaching a problem. Through these visual thinking activities, we may discover relations among the parts of a problem and
use them to create new directions in our thinking. When students in my classes are developing ideas, with the goal of preparing a recommendation report, I ask them to create visual representations of the problem as part of the development process. In fact, I ask them to create two or three representations so that they get beyond the more linear matrices and flow charts to sketches and visuals based on freer types of associations. One year, my students decided to investigate the problem of insects in their residence halls and to send recommendations to the housing staff. In preparation, they created idea maps and sketches to represent their thought processes. Representations such as these give students a wide range of ideas to draw on that can help them see connections among issues as they begin writing (Figure 2).
The lawyer mentioned earlier, who described using visuals in his court presentations, also uses visuals to aid his invention process in preparing arguments. While thinking about a case, he makes a literal or schematic drawing of the scene or situation to help him develop a general approach; for some cases, he also hires a photographer to help him get a clearer view of a setting. These visual representations help him to clarify and to organize his thinking on a case, to absorb the whole, and to see relations among the parts. He feels that the visuals translate relations over time into relations in space so they can be comprehended and evaluated more easily. Visuals, he believes, can cut through the murkiness sometimes created by words and help him see features of an issue more clearly (Steingold). (Figure 3 shows paper mill workers using graphic models in a similar way, to help them understand a production problem.)
Scientists have long used the Internet to exchange information. The advent of browsers added the power to exchange visuals as well as text, and the World Wide Web has relatively recently become a valuable resource for many of us seeking information. A great deal of information is available there on almost any topic, and it’s easily accessible to anyone with a computer connection. Online search tools have become tools of invention, and these tools are themselves becoming more visual. Not only can they display graphics, but search engines such as Vivisimo and Grokker show the results of a search as a visual representation rather than as a list. Results are sorted into categories and then mapped into a display, for instance, as a set of labeled geometric shapes. The software uses a combination of linguistic and statistical analyses to determine categories that fit the subject matter and then maps search results visually into colorful circles of information that allow a viewer to zoom in for detail. An article about these new search tools describes a search for “Paris Hilton” as an example. A textual search tool like Google would return a long list that includes items on a celebrity named Paris Hilton as well as on a Hilton Hotel in Paris. The visual search tools group the responses into categories, such as booking sites, maps, celebrities, etc., making it easier for us to select a circle with the information we need (Bergstein).
Arrangement (dispositio). The visual features of a page are more than simply print conventions; they are full of meaning. The headings and indentations of a page layout indicate a hierarchy of meaning, the order of importance for the points being made. For example, headings in the center are more important than those on the side, and items in a list are related. Through arrangement of information on a page, we make particular points stand out and take on importance in our presentation, whether it’s persuading reader/viewers to purchase a particular toothpaste, to accept the conclusions of an experiment, or to pass legislation. As Karen Schriver explains, “The visual organization of the rhetorical cluster (in this case, the headings, subheadings, and listed items) should make it easy to see the structure; that is, to see which lists are related, which are embedded, and so on” (400). We can think of the visual cues of arrangement as a map for a reader’s trip through our document, showing where to go next as well as which items should be taken together and which will come afterward.
Standard design principles of proximity, contrast, etc. are also rhetorically important for developing Web pages, new spaces for writing that the Greeks would never have dreamed of. In addition to typical highlighting and alignment cues, websites involve a third dimension of arrangement—hyperlinks. Not only can we indent a section of information that needs to be set apart, we can move it to a different location. In addition to preparing a list of items that go together, we can group them on their own page. Visual proximity or virtual separation reinforces the strength or weakness of connections among different pieces of information on a topic and allows us to feature what we find most important. What should we do with those unimportant but still necessary details? Put them two links deep in the website’s structure.
Style (elocutio). The visual rhetoric of style can be subtle and is often found within the text itself. The font we choose, for example, presents a personality to our readers. Times New Roman gives a businesslike quality to reports whereas Comic Sans catches our attention in a party invitation, and Nuptial Script says we’re invited to a wedding. In addition, the density or openness of the lettering and words in a text conveys an attitude and helps to set our expectations about the subject matter of the text. In the introduction to this chapter, for example, I referred to text placed in short, centered lines as often indicating poetry, which brings with it specific expectations. (For an extended discussion of the personality qualities of various fonts, see Eva Brumberger’s articles in Technical Communication.)
The letters themselves also constitute a design element (Figure 4). As Wysocki says about one of the CD-ROMs she analyzed, “The words have been designed to be as much a part of this screen as the art and the photographs, making the words and photographs and paintings equally visual and equally visually weighted” (223). When text becomes art, it is sometimes laid out in a pattern on a page, which we refer to as iconistic text layout. In a newspaper article predicting who would be nominated for Oscars from 2003 films, the text formed Oscar’s shape on the page with pictures of likely nominees lined up along side it (Turan).
Which graphic elements we choose to include also reflects our style. One person may select strong colors in block patterns; another chooses wispy, curved pastels. A rock poster showing a singer with spiked hair and multiple rings in eyebrows and nose sets a different tone from an advertisement for a classical piano concert that has a shadowy schematic of a piano in the background. These choices set a tone as well as conveying information about what sort of concert each will be.
Memory (memoria). Greek rhetoricians used visualization as a technique to aid speakers in remembering their speeches. As Cicero described in De Oratore, this technique was a mnemonic of association based on architecture. Speakers were taught to envision a place, such as a house or perhaps the lecture hall where the planned speech would be delivered, and mentally to associate each section of a speech with a room or item in that place, to create, in a sense, a mental map of images. Parts of a speech might be envisioned as laid out along the steps leading up to the speaker’s platform or associated with a row of windows lining the lecture hall. An overview of points to be made could, in the speaker’s mind, be resting on the podium, and the major points of the argument mentally displayed among a row of statues standing along one side of the hall. Such visual techniques helped speakers remember the points of their speeches and their order, and also helped them keep their place as they proceeded through a speech.
Today’s speakers use PowerPoint. The images have moved out of our minds and onto a projection screen thanks to advances in technology. The images not only help us remember the points we wish to make, they also help our audiences remember them. Access to external memory supports is one of Donald Norman’s principles of designing for usability (34–80). In describing memory’s role in usability he says, “Don’t underestimate the power or importance of simple mental aids [. . .]. They reduce memory load by providing external memory devices (providing knowledge in the world instead of requiring it to be in the head)” (192–93).
Delivery (pronuntiatio). The fifth rhetorical canon, delivery, has changed and continues to change dramatically through advances in technology. Once, when we wanted to persuade someone of our ideas, our only instrument for delivering the message was our voices. With the development of writing and its technologies, we moved through scratching with sticks or rocks, painting with brushes, writing with pen and ink, typing on paper, and now, though usually still at a keyboard, creating virtual electronic communications with computers. Each technological advance has brought new opportunities for delivering our messages to listeners/readers/viewers until today we have an array of options, many of which involve visual elements and, therefore, visual rhetoric.
Much of our writing to inform and to persuade occurs today through the media and on the World Wide Web. We get much of our news from television, which is by name a visual medium that often gives us information through multiple means simultaneously. An interview, for example, might have a crawl line of text running below it for us to read while we are also able to watch the speakers in the interview, gaining information from their facial reactions as well as the questions and answers, and to hear other events occurring in the background. Mitchell Stephens has said that moving images will become how we write in the twenty-first century (201). We saw evidence of that in the summer of 2004. Michael Moore’s film Fahrenheit 9 /11, which is clearly a message and not a fictional story, set attendance records. Apparently many people wanted to see the film in order to evaluate his message for themselves. Today’s communicators would be wise to learn the techniques of these media for conveying their ideas and for putting the rhetorical principles described here to use.
Visual Representation as a Rhetorical Tool
Visuals can be very persuasive, carrying information as well as appealing to our emotions. J. Carl Ganter, Jr., a journalist and photographer, told me of a photo exhibit that played a part in developing history. This exhibit was shown in the early 1990s when events were occurring in Yugoslavia that would result in breaking that country apart, but few people in the United States were yet interested in what was happening so far away. Pictures of events in Yugoslavia were not being printed in the news magazines they had been intended for. Ganter’s picture editor in New York at the time “had heard about all these images coming back from Yugoslavia, and these pictures weren’t being published. They were pictures by very famous photojournalists who were risking their lives to cover important stories of atrocities that were going on” (Interview). The editor had a connection with an administrator at the United Nations and gained permission to show the photos in the main entrance of the UN building. He had the pictures enlarged and framed, and a writer added captions and an introduction. The show was placed at the UN entrance, where it could be viewed by everyone entering or leaving. “Suddenly Yugoslavia was on the map because the pictures, some of them were so strong that people were brought to tears.” Ganter also makes the point that, as powerful as images may be, for him pictures don’t tell the whole story. “A picture tells a thousand words, but there’s always more [. . .]. There’s always a context to put it in [. . .]. I want to know the story behind the picture” (Ganter). For the pictures of Yugoslavia, the introduction and captions served that purpose.
People in all fields are beginning to realize the importance of visual elements and the rhetorical effects they carry. As Felice Frankel has written in an article on “Visualizing Data,”
I am convinced that to develop the much-needed new approaches to representing data, scientists must begin to embrace ideas from those who have not necessarily made a career in science but who have a serious interest in visual thinking and communication. In the process we will learn that making intelligent and communicative representations will clarify the complicated ideas that are the data.
The same is true of all our writing to inform or persuade. Visual thinking during our writing process expands our reservoir of ideas. Visual rhetoric in our documents helps us carry our messages to our readers and viewers more effectively.
Works Cited
Aristotle. The Rhetoric and The Poetics of Aristotle. Trans. W. Rhys Roberts. Ed. Friedrich Solmsen. New York: Modern Library, 1954.
Barry, Ann Marie Seward. Visual Intelligence. Albany, NY: State U of New York P, 1997.
Berger, Arthur Asa. Seeing Is Believing: An Introduction to Visual Communication. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield, 1989.
Bergstein, Brian. “Consumer/Technology: Seek and Ye Shall Find.” Tucson Citizen, 16 Jan. 2004. 30 Jan. 2005 <http://www.tucsoncitizen.com/index.php?page=business&story_id=011604b1_search>.
Brumberger, Eva R. “The Rhetoric of Typography: The Persona of Typeface and Text.”Technical Communication 50.2 (2003): 206–23. See also: Technical Communication Online (2003) <tc.eserver.org/publisher/Technical_Communication_Online>.
—. The Rhetoric of Typography: The Awareness and Impact of Typeface Appropriateness. Technical Communication 50.2 (2003): 224–31.
Cicero. De Oratore, Books I and II, Trans. E. W. Sutton and H. Rackham. Vol. 348 of Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 1996. Reprinted in The Rhetorical Tradition: Readings from Classical Times to the Present. 2nd ed. Ed. Patricia Bizzell and Bruce Herzberg. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2001. 289–339.
Corbett, Edward P. J. Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford UP, 1971.
Frankel, Felice. “Visualizing Data.” American Scientist Online, 19 Feb. 2004. 30 Jan. 2005 <http://www.americanscientist.org/template/AssetDetail/assetid/31222>.
Ganter, J. Carl, Jr. Personal interview. 27 Sept. 1998.
Hilligoss, Susan, and Tharon Howard. Visual Communication: A Writer’s Guide. 2nd ed. New York: Longman, 2002.
Maurer, Sara. “Rhetoric. Period. An Analysis of Seasonale.com <http://www.seasonale.com>” Unpublished Report. 25 Nov. 2003.
Norman, Donald A. The Design of Everyday Things. New York: Basic Books, 2002.
Penenberg, Adam L. “Unleashing the Web Police.” Wired News, 26 July 2004. 30 Jan. 2005 <http://www.wired.com/news/print/0,1294,64319,00.html>.
Rueter, Anne. “Cameras Give Future Docs New Perspectives on Health Care. U–M Students Try Documentary Technique to Explore Problems and Sway Policy Makers.” Ann Arbor News, 22 Feb. 2004: E1–2.
Schriver, Karen. Dynamics in Document Design: Creating Texts for Readers. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1997.
Steingold, Fred. Personal interview. 19 May 1990.
Stephens, Mitchell. The Rise of the Image the Fall of the Word. New York and Oxford: Oxford UP, 1998.
Tateno, Saho. “Rhetors and Rhetorical Principles in the Two Articles about the Human Genome Project.” Unpublished Report. 25 Nov. 2003.
Turan, Kenneth. “A Critic’s Best Guess: Reviewer Predicts Who’ll Be on Tuesday’s Oscar Nominee List.” Ann Arbor News. 24 Jan. 2004: B1–B2.
Venter, J.C., et al., “The Sequence of the Human Genome.” Science 291.5507 (Feb. 2001): 1304–51.
Wysocki, Anne Frances. “Impossibly Distinct: On Form/Content and Word/Image in Two Pieces of Computer-Based Interactive Multimedia.” Computers and Composition 18.3 (2001): 209–34.
