Читать книгу The Political Economy of the BRICS Countries - Группа авторов - Страница 59

Anand, I. and A. Thamphi (2016). “Recent trends in wealth inequality in India,” Economic and Political Weekly, LI(50): 59–67.

Balakrishnan, P. (2010). Economic Growth in India: History and Prospect, New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Barbara, V. (2015). “In denial over racism in Brazil,” The New York Times, March 23, 2015.

Barros, R., M. de Carvalho, S. Franco and R. Mendonca (2010). “Markets, the State and the Dynamics of Inequality: The Case of Brazil,” Discussion Paper, UNDP, New York.

Bhadhuri, A. and D. Nayyar (1996). The Intelligent Person’s Guide to Liberalization, New Delhi: Penguin Books.

Bucciferro, J. R. (2017). “Racial Inequality in Brazil from Independence to Present”, in L. Bertola and J. Williamson (eds.), Has Latin American Inequality Changed Direction: Looking Over the Long Run? Springer Open.

Chakravarty, S. (1987). Development Planning: The Indian Experience, New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Chakravarty, S. (2009). Inequality, Polarization and Poverty: Advances in Distributional Analysis, New York: Springer.

Chatterjee, P. (1998). The Nation and its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

Cornia, G. A. (2015). “Income inequality in Latin America: Recent decline and prospects for its further reduction,” Working Paper No. 2015/020, UNU-WIDER, Helsinki.

Dirks, N. (2001). Castes of Mind: Colonialism and the Making of Modern India, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Dreze, J. and A. K. Sen (1995). India: Social Opportunity and Development, New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Dreze, J. and A. K. Sen (2013). An Uncertain Glory: India and its Contradictions, London: Allen Lane.

Dubey, A. and S. Thorat (2012). “Has Growth Been Socially Inclusive during 1993–4 – 2009–10?” Economic and Political Weekly, 47(10): 43–53.

Fausto, B. and S. Fausto (2014). A Concise History of Brazil, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ferreira de Souza, P. (2012). “Poverty, Inequality and Social Policies in Brazil, 1995–2009,” Working Paper No. 87, International Policy Centre for Inclusive Growth (IPC-IG), UNDP, Brasilia.

Ferreira, F. H. G., P. G. Leite, and M. Ravallion (2009). “Poverty reduction without economic growth? Explaining Brazil’s poverty dynamics, 1985–2004,” Journal of Development Economics, 93(1): 20–36.

Government of India (2013). “Human development,” Economic Survey of India 2012-13, New Delhi: Government of India, pp. 269–294.

Gupta, D. (2000). Interrogating Caste: Understanding hierarchy & difference in Indian Society, New Delhi: Penguin Books.

Himanshu and A. Sen (2004a). “Poverty and Inequality in India-I,” Economic and Political Weekly, 39(38): 4247–4263.

Himanshu and A. Sen (2004b). “Poverty and Inequality in India-II,” Economic and Political Weekly, 39(39): 4361–4375.

IMF (2006). World Economic Outlook: Statistical Appendix, International Monetary Fund, Washington DC, USA. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2016/02/ Accessed on December 15, 2016.

Jayadev, A., S. Motiram and V. Vakulabharanam (2007). “Patterns of wealth disparities in India during the liberalisation era,” Economic and Political Weekly, 42(39): 3853–3863.

Jayaraj, D. and S. Subramanian (2012a). “On the interpersonal inclusiveness of India’s consumption expenditure growth,” Economic and Political Weekly, XLVII(45): 56–66.

Jayaraj, D. and S. Subramanian (2012b). “On the inter-group inclusiveness of India’s consumption expenditure growth,” Economic and Political Weekly, XLVII(10): 65–70.

Joshi, V. and I. M. D. Little (1996). India’s Economic Reforms, 1991–2001, New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Kakwani, N., M. C. Neri and H. Son (2010). “Linkages between pro-poor growth, social programs and labor market: The recent Brazilian experience,” World Development, 38(6): 881–894.

Kohli, A. (2012). Poverty Amid Plenty in the New India, New Delhi: Cambridge University Press.

Kolm, S.-C. (1976a). “Unequal inequalities I”, Journal of Economic Theory, 12(3): 416–442.

Kolm, S.-C. (1976b). “Unequal inequalities II”, Journal of Economic Theory, 13(1): 82–111.

Kotwal, A., B. Ramaswami and W. Wadhwa (2011). “Economic liberalization and Indian economic growth: What’s the evidence?” Journal of Economic Literature, 49(4): 1152–1199.

Lopez-Calvo, L.-F. and N. Lustig (eds.) (2010). “Explaining the decline in inequality in Latin America: Technological change, educational upgrading and democracy” Declining Inequality in Latin America: A Decade of Progress? Baltimore, MD: Brookings Institution Press.

Mishra, A. and R. Ray (2011). “Prices, inequality and poverty: Methodology and Indian evidence”, Review of Income and Wealth, 57(3): 428–448.

Motiram, S. (2013). “Growth, poverty and disparities in India, 1993–2013,” South Asian Journal, 42, 30–39.

Motiram, S. (2015). “Has Indian growth been inclusive? Theoretical concepts and evidence,” Yojana, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, New Delhi.

Motiram, S. and V. Vakulabharanam (2011). “Poverty and inequality in the age of economic liberalisation,” in Dilip Nachane (ed.), India Development Report, New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Motiram, S. and V. Vakulabharanam (2012). “Indian inequality: Patterns and changes, 1993–2010,” in Mahendra Dev (ed.), India Development Report, New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Motiram, S., and N. Sarma (2014). “Polarization, inequality and growth: The Indian experience,” Oxford Development Studies, 42(3): 297–318.

Motiram, S. and K. Naraparaju (2015). “Growth and deprivation in India: What does recent evidence suggest on “inclusiveness?” Oxford Development Studies, 43(2): 145–164.

Motiram, S. and R. Nagaraj (eds.) (2017). “Introduction: From ‘intermediate regime’ to crony capitalism,” Political Economy of Contemporary India, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Nagaraj, R. (2013). “India’s dream run 2003–2008: Understanding the boom and its aftermath,” Economic and Political Weekly, XLVIII(20): 39–51.

Nagaraj, R. (2015). “Seeds of doubts on new GDP numbers: Private corporate sector overestimated?,” Economic and Political Weekly, L(13): 14–17.

Nagarajan, R. (2013). “SC/STs take rapid strides, close literacy gap,” Times of India, November 10, 2013.

Naraparaju, K. (2015). Essays on Labour Markets and Inclusive Growth in India, Unpublished Dissertation, Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research, Mumbai.

Papola, T. S. (2013). “Role of Labor Regulation and Reforms in India: Country Case Study of Labor Market Segmentation,” Employment Working Paper No. 147, International Labour Office, Geneva.

Papola, T. S. and J. Pais (2007). “Debate on labour market reforms in India: A case of misplaced focus,” The Indian Journal of Labour Economics, 50(2): 183–200.

Pereira, C. (2016). “Ethno-racial poverty and income inequality in Brazil,” in N. Lustig (ed.), Commitment to Equity Handbook: A Guide to Estimating the Impact of Fiscal Policy on Inequality and Poverty. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press and CEQ Institute, Tulane University.

Rawat, R. and K. Satyanarayana (eds.) (2016). Handbook of Dalit Studies, Durham: Duke University Press.

Shorrocks, A. and G. Wan (2005). “Spatial decomposition of inequality,” Journal of Economic Geography, 5(1): 59–81.

Skidmore, T. (1996). Brazil: Five Centuries of Change, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Soares, S., L. De Souza, W. Silva, F. G. Silveira and A. Campos (2016). “Poverty Profile: The rural North and Northeast of Brazil,” Working Paper No. 138, International Policy Centre for Inclusive Growth (IPC-IG), UNDP, Brasilia.

Srinivasan, T. N. (2000). Eight Lectures on Indian Economic Reforms, New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Stewart, F. (2001). “Horizontal inequality: A neglected dimension of development”, in 5th UNU-WIDER Annual Lecture, Helsinki.

Stewart, F. (2010). “Horizontal inequalities as a cause of conflict: a review of CRISE findings”, No.1, January 2010, Centre for Research on Inequality, Human Security and Ethnicity, Oxford.

Subramanian, S. (2012). The Poverty Line, New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Subramanian, S. (2014). “The poverty line: Getting it wrong again…again,” Economic and Political Weekly, 49(47).

Subramanian, S. and D. Jayaraj (2013). “The evolution of consumption and wealth inequality in India: A quantitative assessment”, Journal of Globalization and Development, 4(2): 253–281.

Suryanarayana, M. H. and M. Das (2014). “How inclusive is India’s reform(ed) growth?” Economic and Political Weekly, XLIX(6): 44–52.

The Economist (2012). “Race in Brazil: Affirming a divide,” The Economist, January 28, 2012.

Thomas, J. J. (2014). “The demographic challenge and employment growth in India,” Economic and Political Weekly, 49(6): 15–17.

Vakulabharanam, V. (2010). “Does class matter? Class structure and worsening inequality in India,” Economic and Political Weekly, 45(29): 67–76.

Vakulabharanam, V. (2014) “Rising inequality in India: The role of class and global capitalist dynamics,” Presented at the conference Religious Pluralism, Cultural Differences, Social and Institutional Stability: What can we learn from India, at Sapienza, University Di Roma, Dipartimento Di Scienze Politiche, June 9–10.

Vakulabharanam, V. and S. Motiram (2012). “Understanding poverty and inequality in urban India since reforms: Bringing quantitative and qualitative approaches together,” Economic and Political Weekly, XLVII(47–48): 44–52.

*This is a revised version of a paper presented at the conference: Political Economy of Emerging Market Countries: The Challenges of Developing More Humane Societies organized by Niehaus Center for Globalization and Governance at Princeton University, India Initiative at Georgetown University, and Indian Institute of Management Calcutta in January 2017. For their comments on a previous version, I thank the discussants Hema Swaminathan and Emilie Hafner-Burton and participants of the conference.

¹India attained independence from British colonial rule in 1947. For an overview of India’s planned development, see Chakravarty (1987).

²On these reforms and their impact, see, e.g. Bhadhuri and Nayyar (1996), Joshi and Little (1996), Srinivasan (2000), and Dreze and Sen (1995, 2013).

³For an analysis of Indian growth since independence and a discussion of these issues, see Balakrishnan (2010).

⁴See Nagaraj (2015) and the ensuing debate in the pages of the Economic and Political Weekly.

⁵There is a lack of reliable income data on India, although recently (in 2004–2005 and 2011–2012) the India Human Development Survey conducted by National Council for Applied Economic Research and University of Maryland collected data on incomes.

⁶In a departure from past practice, a large survey was conducted in 2011–2012, just two years after the previous one.

⁷Before data from the 61st round was released, several studies attempted to make the data from the 55th round comparable to data from previous rounds. See, e.g. Himanshu and Sen (2004a, 2004b) and the references therein.

⁸The difference in wages has increased from Rs. 900 to 1800.

⁹L(0.5) is nothing but the ordinate of the Lorenz curve at 50% (or 0.5).

¹⁰For a discussion of debates and controversies on Indian poverty, see Subramanian (2012, 2014), Vakulabharanam and Motiram (2012), and the references therein.

¹¹Technically, this is an instance of first order stochastic dominance.

¹²Prior to 1999–2000 (55th Round), the NSS surveys did not enumerate OBCs separately, but combined them with the Others. So, it is only possible to examine the inequality between scheduled and non-scheduled groups.

¹³Rural households are divided into five types based upon their main source of livelihood, Self-employed in agriculture, Self-employed in Non-agriculture, Agricultural Laborers, Other Laborers, and Others (a residual category).

¹⁴This decomposition is similar to one based upon the single-parameter entropy family of indices discussed above, except for an overlapping component in addition to the between and within components.

¹⁵On the reducing gap in illiteracy, see Nagarajan (2013). Motiram and Sarma (2014) present differences in average consumptions.

¹⁶I will draw upon Ferreira de Souza (2012) and Fausto and Fausto (2014, Chapter 10).

¹⁷Fausto and Fausto (2014) divide Brazilian history prior to 1985 into the following phases: 1500–1822, 1822–1889, 1889–1930, 1930–1945, 1945–1964, and 1964–1984. On the contrary, Skidmore (1996) divides it into eight phases: 1500–1750, 1750–1830, 1830–1870, 1870–1910, 1910–1945, 1945–1964, and 1964–1985.

¹⁸These figures are from the Statistical Appendix of the latest World Economic Outlook of the International Monetary Fund (IMF, 2016, Table A4).

¹⁹Cornia (2015) discusses the colonial origins of high inequality in Latin America and shows that Latin American inequality has grown since the nineteenth century.

²⁰“1. Agricultural households are defined as any household in which at least one member is employed in the agricultural sector, and 67 per cent or more of the household income comes from agricultural activities. 2. Pluriactive households are defined as those in which at least one member is employed in the agricultural sector, but less than 67 percent of the household income is derived from agriculture. 3. Non-agricultural rural households are defined as households located in areas officially designated as rural, but without any household members working in agriculture. 4. Non-agricultural urban households are defined as those located in official urban areas, without any household members working in agriculture” (Soares et al. 2006, p. 3).

²¹For details of jobs created since 1993–1994 in various sectors, see Thomas (2014).

²²See Papola and Pais (2007) and Papola (2013) for an extensive discussion of labor regulations and their reform.

²³See Kotwal et al. (2011) for a detailed discussion.

²⁴See Mishra and Ray (2011), and Vakulabharanam and Motiram (2012) for a discussion of this issue.

²⁵Kakwani et al. (2010) have also highlighted the crucial role that social policies have played in protecting the poor from adverse shocks and delivering pro-poor growth.

²⁶For a recent survey of conceptualizations of the Indian state, see Nagaraj and Motiram (2017).

²⁷The comparison with developed countries is even starker: US — 8.5%, UK — 8.0%, and Norway — 8.1%. These figures are taken from the Economic Survey of India, Government of India (2013). Also see Kohli (2002) and Dreze and Sen (2013).