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1 Chapter 1Figure 1.1 Solar power, particle power, and Joule power from 1975–2003Figure 1.2 (a)–(i) Polar cap electric potentials in the Northern Hemisphere,...Figure 1.3 (a)–(i) Magnetic Euler potentials in the Northern Hemisphere, map...Figure 1.4 Comparison between observed Poynting flux from DMSP (a)–(c) with ...Figure 1.5 Cosgrove14 output for high and low magnetic activity for northwar...Figure 1.6 (a)–(b) Values of Pedersen (∑_P) and (c)–(d) Hall (∑_H)...Figure 1.7 Summary of integrated values over auroral passes for event 1, on ...Figure 1.8 Summary of integrated values over auroral passes for event 6, on ...

2 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 Average convection patterns for different IMF orientations from n...Figure 2.2 (a) A schematic of the magnetosphere showing closed (red) and ope...Figure 2.3 (a) The relationship between ionospheric flow, electric field, an...Figure 2.4 Schematic of (a) gyrating particles, (b) E × B drifting particles...Figure 2.5 Plasma flow in the equatorial plane of the magnetosphere. (a) The...Figure 2.6 (a) A 3‐D representation of the Earth's magnetic field (southern ...Figure 2.7 (a) A cut through the magnetosphere in the X = 0 plane, showing t...Figure 2.8 (Left) Field‐aligned current pattern associated with vorticity in...Figure 2.9 (a) Deformation of the magnetopause and resulting plasma flows fo...Figure 2.10 The ionospheric convection excited in response to combined daysi...Figure 2.11 Schematic of the formation of the substorm auroral bulge. (a) A ...Figure 2.12 Three examples of observations of the expanding/contracting pola...Figure 2.13 (Left) The topology of field lines that can undergo reconnection...Figure 2.14 Contrasting the convection patterns for southwards IMF, and for ...

3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 Illustration of multiscale processes: (a) Large‐scale statistical...Figure 3.2 Schematic illustration of various types of high‐latitude mesoscal...Figure 3.3 Energy flux distribution and its temporal variation during the 7 ...Figure 3.4 (a) Energy flux; (b) SuperDARN fitted convection map; (c) vertica...Figure 3.5 Representative statistical distributions of mesoscale/small‐scale...

4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Example of dynamic polar cap density structures (from Zou et al.,...Figure 4.2 Polar cap patches detected by two different algorithms based on i...Figure 4.3 Seasonal and UT variations of the TOI or Patch to background rati...Figure 4.4 Volumetric image of a patch using RISR‐N data on 11 December 2009...Figure 4.5 Polar cap patch median profiles compared with sector median and a...Figure 4.6 (a) TEC map of the Northern Hemisphere using ground‐based receive...Figure 4.7 (a) TEC map at 0100 UT on 1 June 2013 shows the extension of SED ...Figure 4.8 Chart of the time, in s, taken to go down to 60% of the initial l...

5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 The ionospheric ion upflow and outflow.Figure 5.2 Pathways of ionospheric outflow on the dynamics of the SW‐M‐I sys...Figure 5.3 The velocity‐dependent landing of O⁺ ion outflow.Figure 5.4 Solar wind and interplanetary magnetic field for the 31 August 20...Figure 5.5 The 31 August 2005 storm characteristics: (a) simulated O⁺ outflo...Figure 5.6 (Left panels) Outflow fluxes for (top) case A and (bottom) case B at 6 RE...Figure 5.7 Logarithm density of the total fluid, normalized to proton mass f...Figure 5.8 (a) Dst and pseudo Dst for baseline, case A and case B. Total pla...Figure 5.9 Morphology of average ion outflow from simulation C after the sim...Figure 5.10 Sequence showing the sawtooth mechanism for one oscillation from...Figure 5.11 Simulated magnetic inclination angle θ = sin⁻¹(B_z/B) ...Figure 5.12 Superposed epoch analysis of magnetic inclination angle near geo...Figure 5.13 Solar‐wind parameters for the 18 April 2002 storm used as upstre...Figure 5.14 Magnetic flux for observed (black) taken from Huang and Cai (200...Figure 5.15 Comparison of magnetic field taken at GOES 8 and 10 (black) with...Figure 5.16 The mass loading process on the dayside magnetopause through ion...Figure 5.17 (a) The local dayside reconnection rate and (b) the integrated d...Figure 5.18 Magnetic pressure in the equatorial plane calculated from (a) ba...Figure 5.19 Magnetic field lines in (a) the baseline simulation and (b) the ...

6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Azimuth scan observations with the Millstone Hill radar provide a...Figure 6.2 Aggregation of 5 minutes of Northern Hemisphere GPS TEC observati...

7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Overview of all Cluster density measurements based on spacecraft ...Figure 7.2 Characteristic distributions of the data set. Panel (a): Density ...Figure 7.3 Definition of reference volumes in northern and southern lobes us...Figure 7.4 Distributions similar to Figure 7.2a, but now only containing mea...Figure 7.5 Possible explanations for north‐south differences. (a) Difference...

8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 A scenario of subauroral ionospheric heating due to wave‐particle...Figure 8.2 (Top row) Frequency‐time spectrograms for the electric fields in ...Figure 8.3 (a)–(c) The r.m.s. amplitude of wave electric fields δE_lh (s...Figure 8.4 Cluster, Polar, and RBSP‐B 1‐500 eV (top) H⁺ and (bottom) electro...Figure 8.5 SAPSWS detecteds by RBSP‐A on 17 March 2015. The same format as F...Figure 8.6 The rms amplitude of wave electric fields (δE_lh (solid black...Figure 8.7 Ionospheric structures during the SAID events on (a) 8 April 2004...Figure 8.8 Ionospheric structures during the 17 March 2015 SAPSWS events. Th...Figure 8.9 Storm-time strong SAPSWS observed by DMSP F14 and F15 on 6 April...Figure 8.10 Variation of the relative plasma density with (a) ε_i−n...Figure 8.11 (a) The spectral power of plasma irregularities during the scint...Figure 8.12 The rate coefficient for the reaction (1) with N₂: Pluses “+” sh...Figure 8.13 (a) Rate coefficient for the vibrational excitation (V = 0 → V >...Figure 8.14 (a) The low‐frequency electric field amplitude (the red line) an...

9 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Local time and seasonal dependence of F‐region quiet‐time average...Figure 9.2 Local time and seasonal dependence of F‐region quiet‐time average...Figure 9.3 Upward F‐region equatorial vertical drifts due to neutral winds (...Figure 9.4 Local time, seasonal and longitude‐dependent equatorial quiet‐tim...Figure 9.5 Seasonal and longitudinal variations of evening prereversal veloc...Figure 9.6 Longitudinal dependence of equatorial evening prereversal velocit...Figure 9.7 Seasonal and longitudinal dependence of equatorial quiet‐time ave...Figure 9.8 Height variation of quiet‐time evening vertical drifts over Jicam...Figure 9.9 (a) Altitudinal profiles of Jicamarca late afternoon and early ni...Figure 9.10 Height profiles of evening vertical plasma drifts over Jicamarca...Figure 9.11 SYM‐H and ASY indices equatorial magnetic measurements over the ...Figure 9.12 Seasonal dependence of longitudinally averaged equatorial prompt...Figure 9.13 Seasonal depedence of longitudinally averaged equatorial disturb...Figure 9.14 Equatorial equinoctial disturbance‐dynamo vertical drifts (posit...Figure 9.15 Time series of ionosphere responses to the X17 flare that occurr...

10 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 Geometry used for the generalized Rayleigh‐Taylor instability an...Figure 10.2 Schematic of bubble formation on the bottom side of the F layer ...Figure 10.3 Numerical simulation of bubble penetration into the topside iono...Figure 10.4 Numerical simulation of bubble evolution including a conducting Figure 10.5 Three‐dimensional electron density isosurfaces and two‐dimension...Figure 10.6 ESF bubble development using (a) the donor‐cell method and (b) t...Figure 10.7 High-resolution ESF bubble development using the HIRB model...Figure 10.8 ESF bubble development. The top panel (a) is for no neutral wind...Figure 10.9 Sun‐fixed longitudinal grid showing the coarse and high resoluti...Figure 10.10 Electron density contours as a function of magnetic local time ...Figure 10.11 Plots of the electron density, vertical E x B velocity, and zon...Figure 10.12 Color‐coded contours of the electron density as a function of l...

11 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 Climatology of upward plasma drift over Jicamarca, which is plot...Figure 11.2 Percentage ESF occurrence probability as a function of PRE peak ...Figure 11.3 The monthly mean sunspot numbers from 1950 to 2020 are plotted t...Figure 11.4 The scatter in the h’F values that immediately preceded th...Figure 11.5 Three ALTAIR scans made on 19 July 1979, which show (a) a horizo...Figure 11.6 (a) The original definition of ESF referred to as the range type...Figure 11.7 Percentage occurrence frequency for RSF and FSF as a function of...Figure 11.8 (a) Occurrence frequency of radio scintillations at 40, 140 and ...Figure 11.9 Histograms showing the percentage occurrence frequency for the j...Figure 11.10 Wavelength dependences of irregularity growth rate: curve A is ...Figure 11.11 Normalized growth rate of the collisional‐shear instability, pl...Figure 11.12 A sketch showing the N‐I coupling process associated with an id...Figure 11.13 Distributions of ESF (ROCSAT‐1 data) and OLR data as a function...Figure 11.14 A comparison of deep convective activity (blue bars) with ESF o...Figure 11.15 A composite plot of h’F versus UT, on 27 March 2006, meas...Figure 11.16 A sketch that is consistent with the data from 27 March 2006 in...Figure 11.17 (a) Sketch showing the variations in h’F vs UT over BCL a...Figure 11.18 Composite plot of PRE curves from C/NOFSFigure 11.19 Seven hodographs of U, measured over Kwajalein for 1978, 1979, ...Figure 11.20 Altitude profiles of the zonal U, calculated from the HWM07 mod...Figure 11.21 Two sets of U profiles, obtained by rockets launched from Kwaja...Figure 11.22 (a) Hodograph for U, measured over Kwajalein on 17 August 1978....Figure 11.23 Sketch showing how the meridional U stabilizes or destabilizes ...Figure 11.24 DMSP climatologies for (a) 2000 and (b) 2006 are reproduced fro...Figure 11.25 Occurrence rate over Eastern Pacific sector (240°E to 285°E), e...Figure 11.26 Percentage occurrence probability, derived from AE‐E data, is p...Figure 11.27 (a) DMSP EPB climatology for 1999–2002 (redrawn from Gentile et...Figure 11.28 Climatology of EPBs derived from the dawn sector (0000–0600 LT)...Figure 11.29 Early paradigm for the development of ESF over a station in the...Figure 11.30 An ATI plot of radar backscatter as a function of altitude and ...Figure 11.31 Four stages of the upwelling paradigm, which describe EPB devel...Figure 11.32 Spatial maps of isodensity contours as a function of altitude a...Figure 11.33 Curves of h’F versus UT are shown for 22 July 1979 (black...Figure 11.34 Relationship of ΔE oscillations observed during a San Marco D p...Figure 11.35 ALTAIR maps, taken on 24 July 1979, showing (a) a large‐amplitu...Figure 11.36 A composite plot of ALTAIR scans from 24 July 1979, which shows...Figure 11.37 A composite comparison of an ATI plot of radar backscatter obta...Figure 11.38 (a) Ionogram taken at Kwajalein on 24 July 1979, at 0711 UT (18...Figure 11.39 An ionogram with DOA capability is presented, which shows multi...Figure 11.40 Summary of the EQUIS II rocket experiment on 7 August 2004. Fig...Figure 11.41 Velocity shear measurements obtained with the Jicamarca radar o...Figure 11.42 Stack of three ALTAIR scans, from 7 August 2004, which show the...Figure 11.43 Superposition of vertical‐velocity curves versus LT, measured d...Figure 11.44 A composite, which includes four ALTAIR scans taken at differen...Figure 11.45 ALTAIR scan of a backscatter plume (bottom panel) and ion densi...Figure 11.46 Example of LSWS with no structure during the first pass (orbit ...Figure 11.47 Example of RSF patches passing over Jicamarca, obtained with a ...Figure 11.48 Examples of long‐lived striations, which were launched around s...Figure 11.49 Example of AzTI plot (lower panel) of measurements made with a ...Figure 11.50 Keogram of ROTI from a network of GPS receivers in Southeast As...Figure 11.51 A train of 14 EPBs observed with C/NOFS during three consecutiv...Figure 11.52 The ion density (left column) and vertical velocity (right colu...Figure 11.53 Sketch for Model 2 interpretation, reproduced from Huang et al....Figure 11.54 Spatial maps of coherent backscatter during presence of westwar...Figure 11.55 Example of vortical plasma flow and development of EPBs, 31 Jul...Figure 11.56 A composite plot, which includes the h’F plots from MAN a...Figure 11.57 A sketch that shows a seed ΔE in region of westward drift; if i...Figure 11.58 Example of EPBs obtained with the C/NOFS satellite on 5 June 20...Figure 11.59 The occurrence frequency of ESF over Baguio, from Marasigan (19...Figure 11.60 (a) Histogram for FSF occurrences; (b) variation in h’F f...Figure 11.61 Frequency of days of radar echoes during low solar and magnetic...Figure 11.62 An example of an upwelling plume, observed with the EAR on 20 J...Figure 11.63 Backscatter plumes observed with the CXI radar on 23 July 2011 ...Figure 11.64 Backscatter plumes observed with the CXI radar on 3 July 2011 w...Figure 11.65 A sketch of the evening equatorial vortex, where red (blue) lin...Figure 11.66 OLR maps showing the temporal development of a MCC (blue colore...

12 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 Example of EEJ recordings over 1 week at the stations Huancayo (...Figure 12.2 Typical noontime EEJ signature observed by CHAMP. (a) Scalar mag...Figure 12.3 Current density components constructed from solution of PDE for ...Figure 12.4 Magnetic field components due to EEJ current flow for same time ...Figure 12.5 Zonal average of the EEJ local time variation. Mean diurnal vari...Figure 12.6 Zonal and diurnal averages of the EEJ height‐integrated peak cur...Figure 12.7 Global averages of the EEJ height‐integrated peak current densit...Figure 12.8 Longitudinal distribution of the electrojet intensity versus loc...Figure 12.9 Composite plot of all tidal components contributing to the wave...Figure 12.10 Composite plot of the major EEJ tidal signals during December s...Figure 12.11 Dependence of the counter electrojet occurrence frequency on (a...Figure 12.12 Distribution of the CEJ occurrence rates in a local time versus...Figure 12.13 Dependence of CEJ amplitude on magnetic activity. On average, t...

13 Chapter 13Figure 13.1 Diurnal variations of the latitude‐altitude patterns of the iono...Figure 13.2 The integrated electron content (IEC) as measured by the CHAMP s...Figure 13.3 The total electron content (TEC) between altitudes 100 and 2,000...Figure 13.4 The absolute TEC deviation during the 2003 Halloween storms vers...Figure 13.5 Sketches illustrating the evolution of dayside electron density ...Figure 13.6 Variations of differential total electron content (TEC) obtained...

14 Chapter 14Figure 14.1 (a) Global MHD simulation of the dynamos of the R1 and R2 FACs f...Figure 14.2 X‐component magnetic fields at the IMAGE stations, Kilpisjarvi (...Figure 14.3 Latitudinal profile of the magnitude of the DP2 fluctuations sho...Figure 14.4 A schematic diagram of the DP2 ionospheric currents under the so...Figure 14.5 (top) Solar wind dynamic pressure, (middle) IMF Bz measured by A...Figure 14.6 UT versus latitude plots of the line‐of‐sight velocity measured ...Figure 14.7 HF Doppler frequency deviations caused by the SC electric fields...Figure 14.8 Model calculations of eastward electric fields at 60° latitude (...Figure 14.9 Convection (E₁) and shielding (E₂) electric fields depicted with...Figure 14.10 Schematic diagram of the substorm overshielding current circuit...Figure 14.11 (a) H component of the magnetic field at low latitude, Okinawa,...Figure 14.12 Geomagnetic storm recorded at low latitude, Okinawa (OKI, 24.75...Figure 14.13 (top) Contour map of the magnetic disturbances caused by the we...Figure 14.14 (from the top) Solar wind dynamic pressure, IMF Bz, IEF, ASY/SY...Figure 14.15 Three‐layered Earth‐ionosphere waveguide model explaining the i...Figure 14.16 Magnetosphere–ionosphere–ground current circuit achieved by the...Figure 14.17 Electric potential, current, and power calculated at the (a) dy...Figure 14.18 Model calculations of eastward electric fields at 60 latitude...

15 Chapter 15Figure 15.1 Upper atmospheric number densities for O, O₂, and N₂ derived usi...Figure 15.2 Ion and electron temperatures at ~1500 LT on October 13, 2002 ov...Figure 15.3 Global variations of magnetic declination calculated for January...Figure 15.4 Schematic diagram of the geomagnetic declination and the zonal w...Figure 15.5 Diurnal variations of median TEC on the western US (solid line w...Figure 15.6 Longitudinal dependence of TEC controlled by magnetic declinatio...Figure 15.7 Analysis of longitudinal variations of electron density using lo...Figure 15.8 Similar to Figure 15.7 but for R_ew variations as a function of d...Figure 15.9 Correlation between electron density east–west difference ratio ...Figure 15.10 From top to bottom are the monthly mean values of F10.7 index, ...Figure 15.11 Statistical analysis of the TEC deviation RTEC at 03, 06, 09, a...Figure 15.12 CHAMP observations of electron density longitudinal variations....Figure 15.13 DEMETER satellite daytime measurements of geographic longitudin...Figure 15.14 GITM simulations of combined winds and magnetic declination eff...Figure 15.15 COSMIC observations of electron density longitudinal variations...Figure 15.16 Millstone Hill summertime variations of electron density (a), v...Figure 15.17 COSMIC global NmF2 observations for two universal times: (a) 00...Figure 15.18 WINDII observations of thermospheric winds at 170, 140, 120, an...Figure 15.19 CHAMP observations of average latitude profiles of thermospheri...Figure 15.20 FPI red line neutral winds measured (first and second panels) o...Figure 15.21 Millstone Hill F region (a, top panels) and E region (b, bottom...Figure 15.22 TIEGCM simulation of thermospheric responses to SAPS for Nov. 2...

16 Chapter 16Figure 16.1 Schematic of the coupling processes and atmospheric variability ...Figure 16.2 Variations in stratospheric temperature (top) at 90^oN, 10hPa (~3...Figure 16.3 Arctic vortex (marked with “L” and thick black contours) and str...Figure 16.4 3D representation of the Arctic vortex (colored by temperature) ...Figure 16.5 Temperature perturbations during the major SSW in January 2009 a...Figure 16.6 Variations in amplitudes of (a) diurnal and terdiurnal tides and...Figure 16.7 Latitude‐height distribution of zonal mean SSW effects in (top) ...Figure 16.8 Height dependence of the thermospheric total mass density anomal...Figure 16.9 Observations of TEC at 17 UT (noon to afternoon sectors) one mon...Figure 16.10 Variation in anomalies of vertical drift (top) and peak electro...Figure 16.11 (a) SSW effect on the eastward L(lunar) current intensity at th...Figure 16.12 Variation of TEC as a function of DOY (January–February 2009) a...Figure 16.13 SW2 amplitude of temperature at 1x10^‐4 hPa (~110 km) for ...Figure 16.14 Perturbations in the vertical plasma drift velocity at Jicamarc...Figure 16.15 Global Scale Wave Model (GSWM) total energy response for zonal ...Figure 16.16 Longitudinal distributions of simulated vertical drift at fixed...

17 Chapter 17Figure 17.1 The 2D GNSS TEC snapshot for 30‐minute intervals obtained from t...Figure 17.2 The in‐situ plasma density at the DMSP orbiting altitude as dete...Figure 17.3 Same as Figure 17.2 but for a snapshot of SED plume taken on 20 ...Figure 17.4 The irregularity distributions as a function of day of the year ...Figure 17.5 The ground‐tracks of TIMED satellite (where SABER instrument onb...Figure 17.6 The ground‐based GNSS TEC perturbations, showing the poleward pr...

18 Chapter 18Figure 18.1 630‐nm airglow images mapped onto the geographical coordinates o...Figure 18.2 Electric field vector measured by the DMSP F15 satellite along t...Figure 18.3 Schematics showing the generation of polarization electric field...Figure 18.4 (a) A sequence of all‐sky 630.0‐nm airglow image taken at Arecib...Figure 18.5 Model calculation of EMSTID structures. The color scale, black s...Figure 18.6 Results of a three‐dimensional simulation by Yokoyama et al. (20...Figure 18.7 Global distribution of the MMF occurrence rate as observed by Sw...Figure 18.8 Global distribution of sporadic E activity for (a) June–August 2...Figure 18.9 Schematic showing E and F region coupling where both Northern...Figure 18.10 Global distributions of MMF events observed by Swarm‐Alpha sate...Figure 18.11 A two‐dimensional map of TEC perturbations at 02:30 UT (11:30 L...Figure 18.12 Altitude and local time cross‐section of the echo power receive...Figure 18.13 Time‐height distribution of short‐period variations (T ≤ 2 hr) ...

19 Chapter 19Figure 19.1 Example of (left) undisturbed vertically incident sounding and (...Figure 19.2 Ray paths of 15MHz (top) and 20MHz (bottom) radio waves through ...Figure 19.3 Group range (green dots) and ground range (blue dots) as a funct...Figure 19.4 Ray paths of 30MHz radio waves through the ionosphere computed u...Figure 19.5 Example of paths taken by O polarization rays (blue) and X polar...Figure 19.6 The effect of cross‐range ionospheric tilts on HF radio wave pro...Figure 19.7 Ground range as a function of ray launch elevation calculated us...Figure 19.8 Modeled mode evolution of two‐way propagation paths between Lave...Figure 19.9 Defocusing of a narrow beam of radio waves reflected by the iono...Figure 19.10 Effective collision frequency between electrons and various neu...Figure 19.11 Absorption profile for vertically propagating O and X radio wav...Figure 19.12 Absorption calculated for 10 MHz O‐mode oblique rays as a funct...Figure 19.13 Absorption calculated for 10 MHz O‐mode oblique rays as a funct...Figure 19.14 Directional noise densities calculated by SPINE, for a frequenc...Figure 19.15 (top) Background noise and interference estimated by SPINE for ...Figure 19.16 Quasi vertically incident ionogram (transmitter–receiver separa...Figure 19.17 Observed (left) and modelled (right) backscatter sounder ionogr...Figure 19.18 Example of the varying propagation conditions for a hypothetica...Figure 19.19 Example of (top left) optimal SNR, (top right) optimal frequenc...Figure 19.20 Climatology vs. real‐time. The left‐hand column of figures show...Figure 19.21 Monthly median model showing the rise in height of the ionosphe...Figure 19.22 Monthly median model showing (left) the peak plasma frequency (...Figure 19.23 Quasi parabolic parameters for the F2 layer. a) The maximum pla...Figure 19.24 Surfaces through a 3D monthly median model of the ionospheric e...Figure 19.25 (left) Transponder range vs. time color coded by Doppler shift ...Figure 19.26 The power spectra of a data‐driven real‐time ionospheric electr...Figure 19.27 The power spectra of a data‐driven real‐time ionospheric electr...Figure 19.28 A 12‐hour periodicity seen in foF2 over Australia on 03‐Sep‐201...Figure 19.29 Sequence of night time VIS ionograms recorded on 30 August 2015...Figure 19.30 Measurements of HF direction‐of‐arrival dynamics using a 2‐dime...Figure 19.31 High‐pass filter of the reconstructed electron density profile ...Figure 19.32 A periodic disturbance visible in nighttime limb imaging at vis...Figure 19.33 Figure 9 from Cervera and Harris (2014). A synthesized series o...Figure 19.34 Figure 10 from Cervera and Harris (2014). Modeled and observed ...Figure 19.35 Figure 6 from Cervera and Harris (2014) A series of quasi VIS i...Figure 19.36 Figure 7 from Cervera and Harris (2014). A series of synthetic ...Figure 19.37 High‐resolution backscatter plot obtained using the experimenta...Figure 19.38 (left) High‐resolution WSBI leading edges from measurements. (r...Figure 19.39 O(1D) 630 nm airglow observation from Edinburgh, Australia, on ...Figure 19.40 (left) A VIS ionogram from Woodside, Australia, during 27‐Jan‐2...Figure 19.41 An example of the splitting of the F2 trace presumably in the p...Figure 19.42 Dealiased JORN Alice Springs mini‐radar plots observed using th...Figure 19.43 Plots of JORN Laverton OTH radar reception of the Normanton tra...Figure 19.44 A synthetic example of the spreading effect on the nighttime F2...Figure 19.45 Dst index, observed foF2, and maximum oblique‐path O‐mode frequ...Figure 19.46 (top row) TOPEX/Poseidon passes and (bottom row) corresponding ...Figure 19.47 Unpublished diagram from Lynn et al. (2004) showing TEC from TO...Figure 19.48 Backscatter ionograms from the Laverton JORN FMS. There are eig...Figure 19.49 Backscatter ionograms from the Laverton JORN BSS eastward‐looki...Figure 19.50 Backscatter ionograms from the Laverton JORN BSS eastward‐looki...Figure 19.51 (top) Daytime VIS ionogram displaying sporadic‐E with N and M m...Figure 19.52 OIS ionogram indicating (left) some of the features extracted a...Figure 19.53 E region power for 3 days (1–3/12/2012) and 2 paths. The blue l...Figure 19.54 Received power at Laverton from the transmitter at Kalkarindji ...Figure 19.55 Modeled received power corresponding to the measured power show...Figure 19.56 Power differences between measurements shown in Figure 19.54 an...Figure 19.57 Histograms of power differences between measurement and model f...

20 Chapter 20Figure 20.1 Map of scintillation amplitude fading depth at L‐band as a funct...Figure 20.2 Block diagram of typical (a) phase‐lock loop and (b) delay‐lock ...Figure 20.3 Detrended 100 Hz L1 (a) signal power in dB and (b) phase in radi...Figure 20.4 L1 band signal power over 100 s interval at equatorial latitudes...Figure 20.5 L1 and L2 outage statistics over 2.65 years of data collection f...Figure 20.6 WAAS architecture. Reference stations and master stations consti...Figure 20.7 Scatter map plot of L2 outages across the WAAS service region, 2...Figure 20.8 Number of days of cycle slips in a 3.3 year data set, for the au...Figure 20.9 GBAS architecture. The ground segment consists of reference rece...Figure 20.10 GBAS user vertical protection level (VPL) over time at low‐lati...

21 Chapter 21Figure 21.1 Three kinds of atmospheric waves excited by earthquakes disturb ...Figure 21.2 Time series of TEC response to the 1994 Oct. 04 Hokkaido‐Toho‐Ok...Figure 21.3 Comparison of the coseismic ionospheric disturbance of the 2015 ...Figure 21.4 High‐pass filtered STEC time‐series of 28 examples of near‐field...Figure 21.5 Comparison of M_w of the 28 earthquakes in Figure 21.4, with thei...Figure 21.6 Distance‐time diagram for the far‐field ionospheric disturbances...Figure 21.7 (a) Vertical TEC changes before and after the 2011 Tohoku‐oki ea...Figure 21.8 VTEC changes before and after the 2015 Illapel earthquake (M_w8.3...Figure 21.9 Results of 3D tomography of electron density anomalies at height...Figure 21.10 VTEC anomalies (departure from reference curves) before and aft...Figure 21.11 VTEC change curves of 18 earthquakes shown in Figure 21.10 (thi...

22 Chapter 22Figure 22.1 Surface displacement (Z) calculated using Eq. (22.7) for a maxim...Figure 22.2 Map plots showing band-pass filtered VTEC (in units of TECU, rig...Figure 22.3 Thermospheric temperature fluctuations (in K) due to tsunami‐dri...Figure 22.4 Total electron content (TEC) fluctuations relative to the mean T...Figure 22.5 Time-height section of the vertical flux of the horizontal momen...Figure 22.6 Cross-section of the modeled tsunami-induced gravity wave. (top)...