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1. Rebecca Ann Bach, “17th and 18th Century Othello and Desdemona: Race and Emerging Heterosexuality,” in Feminisms and Early Modern Texts: Essays for Phyllis Rackin, ed. Bach and Gwynne Kennedy (Selinsgrove, PA: Susquehanna University Press, 2010), 81–98.

2. Hanne Blank, Straight: The Surprisingly Short History of Heterosexuality (Boston: Beacon, 2012), xvi.

3. Bach, “17th and 18th Century Othello and Desdemona,” 81.

4. Quoted in Jonathan Ned Katz, The Invention of Heterosexuality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 92.

5. Katz, Invention of Heterosexuality.

6. Kevin Mumford, Interzones: Black/White Sex Districts in Chicago and New York in the Early Twentieth Century (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), xi, xii.

7. See Siobhan B. Somerville’s seminal work, Queering the Color Line: Race and the Invention of Homosexuality in American Culture (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2000). Her argument about the ways in which race served as a key reference point for understanding homosexuality is discussed in more detail later in the essay.

8. For more on the process of constructing whiteness as a space of “purity,” see Kirsten Fischer, Suspect Relations: Sex, Race, and Resistance in Colonial North Carolina (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2002); Joanne Nagel, Race, Ethnicity, and Sexuality: Intimate Interactions, Forbidden Frontiers (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 37–62.

9. The 1661 Maryland law mandated that a “free-born” English woman who married a black slave serve the same master during the life of her husband and that any children of the couple would be slaves as well. There is a large literature on the history of antimiscegenation laws in the United States and the role such laws played in shaping racial and gender hierarchies. See, for example, Peggy Pascoe, What Comes Naturally: Miscegenation Law and the Making of Race in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009). A good introduction is Peter Bardaglio, “‘Shamefull Matches’: The Regulation of Interracial Sex and Marriage in the South before 1900,” in Sex, Love, and Race: Crossing Racial Boundaries in North America, ed. Martha Hodes (New York: NYU Press, 1999), 112–40.

10. Governor and Council of Virginia, “Statutes (1630–70),” in Race in Early Modern England: A Documentary Companion, ed. Ania Loomba and Jonathan Burton (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 229.

11. Theodore Bilbo, Take Your Choice: Separation or Mongrelization (Poplarville, MS: Dream House, 1947), 57–58.

12. Bilbo, 57–58.

13. Richard Dyer, White (New York: Routledge, 1997), 20; Mason Stokes, The Color of Sex: Whiteness, Heterosexuality, and the Fictions of White Supremacy (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2001), 16.

14. For more on this, see Katz, Invention of Heterosexuality, 88.

15. Mason Stokes, “White Heterosexuality: A Romance of the Straight Man’s Burden,” in Thinking Straight: The Power, Promise, and Paradox of Heterosexuality, ed. Chrys Ingraham (New York: Routledge, 2005), 133.

16. For a good overview of racial sexual stereotypes and their social implications, see Nagel, Race, Ethnicity, and Sexuality.

17. Stokes, Color of Sex, 17.

18. Stokes, 18.

19. Robert C. Young, Colonial Desire (1995), quoted in Stokes, “White Heterosexuality,” 146.

20. Stokes, “White Heterosexuality,” 146.

21. Birth of a Nation, directed by D. W. Griffith, based on the novel by Thomas Dixon Jr. (Triangle Film Corp., 1915).

22. Stevi Jackson, “Sexuality, Heterosexuality, and Gender Hierarchy: Getting Our Priorities Straight,” in Ingraham, Thinking Straight, 18.

23. Nagel, Race, Ethnicity, and Sexuality, 141. See also Diane Richardson, Rethinking Sexuality (London: Sage, 2000), 80.

24. Nagel, Race, Ethnicity, and Sexuality, 159, 166.

25. See Pascoe, What Comes Naturally.

26. Steven Seidman, “From the Polluted Homosexual to the Normal Gay: Changing Patterns of Sexual Regulation in America,” in Ingraham, Thinking Straight, 40.

27. Pascoe, What Comes Naturally, 11.

28. Stetson Kennedy, Jim Crow Guide: The Way It Was (Boca Raton: Florida Atlantic University Press, 1990), 67; originally published as Jim Crow Guide to the U.S.A. (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1959). Pascoe’s What Comes Naturally explores this issue of wills, estates, and miscegenation law in great depth.

29. Leti Volpp, “American Mestizo: Filipinos and Antimiscegenation Laws in California,” in Loving v. Virginia in a Post-racial World: Rethinking Race, Sex, and Marriage, ed. Kevin Noble Maillard and Rose Cuison Villazor (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 71.

30. While relationships between white women and black men were deemed particularly threatening, other kinds of interracial relationships also challenged the social and patriarchal order. As Mary Ting Yi Lui has shown, the murder of a white woman, allegedly by her Chinese lover, in early twentieth-century New York City generated efforts by authorities to “restore moral and spatial order” with intensified surveillance of Chinatown, intensified spatial segregation, and efforts to police the behavior of white women. See Lui, The Chinatown Trunk Mystery: Murder, Miscegenation, and Other Dangerous Encounters in Turn-of-the-Century New York City (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005).

31. Renee Romano, Race Mixing: Black-White Marriage in Postwar America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), 66–69.

32. Romano, 197–98.

33. Adrienne Rich, “Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence,” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 5, no. 4 (Summer 1980): 631–60.

34. Judy Tzu-Chun Wu, “Asian American History and Racialized Compulsory Deviance,” Journal of Women’s History 15, no. 3 (Autumn 2003): 60.

35. Hannah Rosen, Terror in the Heart of Freedom: Citizenship, Sexual Violence and the Meaning of Race in the Postemancipation South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009), 164.

36. For more on black club women’s adherence to and promotion of “respectable” middle-class sexual norms, see Stephanie J. Shaw, What a Woman Ought to Be and to Do: Black Professional Women Workers during the Jim Crow Era (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), 13–25.

37. Both quoted in Romano, Race Mixing, 85.

38. Mason Stokes, “Father of the Bride: Du Bois and the Making of Black Heterosexuality,” in Next to the Color Line: Gender, Sexuality, and W. E. B. Du Bois, ed. Susan Gillman and Alys Eve Weinbaum (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2007), 289–316.

39. Pascoe, What Comes Naturally, 59–62.

40. For more, see Romano, Race Mixing, 48–49, 127–32.

41. Romano, x, 277–79; Amy C. Steinbugler, Beyond Loving: Intimate Racework in Lesbian, Gay, and Straight Interracial Relationships (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), chap. 5.

42. “Hon. Marcus Garvey Tells of Interview with Ku Klux Klan,” Negro World, July 15, 1922, 7; quoted in Bob Blaisdell, introduction to Selected Writings and Speeches of Marcus Garvey (Mineola, NY: Dover, 2004), viii.

43. Romano, Race Mixing, 216–47 (quotes on 221, 222, 243).

44. Greg Carter, The United States of the United Races: A Utopian History of Race Mixing (New York: NYU Press, 2013).

45. Interracial, March 1977, title page.

46. Romano, Race Mixing, 139–40.

47. Will Kuby, Conjugal Misconduct: Defying Marriage Law in the Twentieth-Century United States (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2018), 226–27.

48. Seidman, “Polluted Homosexual,” 40.

49. Blank, Straight, 164 (emphasis added).

50. For more on the visibility of heterosexual interracial couples, see Romano, Race Mixing; Steinbugler, Beyond Loving, 55.

51. Amy Steinbugler, “Hiding in Plain Sight: Why Queer Interraciality Is Unrecognizable to Strangers and Sociologists,” in Interracial Relationships in the 21st Century, 2nd ed., ed. Earl Smith and Angela Hatterly (Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 2013), 97.

52. Steinbugler, 99.

53. For more on this, see Somerville, Queering the Color Line (quote on 34).

54. See Cheryl D. Hicks, Talk with You like a Woman: African American Women, Justice, and Reform in New York, 1890–1935 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010), 204–36.

55. Daphne Lofquist, Terry Lugaila, Martin O’Connell, and Sarah Feliz, “Households and Families: 2010” (US Census Bureau, Washington, DC, April 2012), 18, www.census.gov. Note these numbers refer to both interracial relationships and same-race Hispanic/non-Hispanic relationships, or what the US Census Bureau considers as interethnic marriages. If only interracial relationships are considered, the corresponding numbers for interracial couples are 6.9 percent of all heterosexual married couples, 14.2 percent of unmarried different-sex couples, and 14.5 percent of same-sex couples.

56. I. Bennett Capers, “The Crime of Loving: Loving, Lawrence, and Beyond,” in Maillard and Cuison Villazor, Loving v. Virginia in a Post-racial World, 106.

57. Somerville, Queering the Color Line, 39.

58. Mumford, Interzones, 56; Rick Baldoz, The Third Asiatic Invasion: Migration and Empire in Filipino America, 1898–1946 (New York: NYU Press, 2011), 130–34.

59. Chad Heap, Slumming: Sexual and Racial Encounters in American Nightlife, 1885–1940 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009), 10.

60. Mildred Loving, who was from the triracial community of Hunter’s Point, Virginia, was of mixed Native American and African ancestry, and recent scholarship has revealed that she defined herself as Indian rather than black. Indeed, Arica Coleman argues that from Lovings’ own perspective, their marriage adhered to Virginia law, which allowed marriages between whites and some Native Americans. Outsiders, however, including the media and the courts, defined Mildred Loving as black, and the 1967 case of Loving v. Virginia was viewed at the time as affirming the rights of blacks and whites to marry. For more on this issue, see Arica Coleman, That the Blood Stay Pure: African Americans, Native Americans, and the Predicament of Race and Identity in Virginia (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2013).

61. Romano, Race Mixing, 188–91.

62. Frank Newport, “In U.S. 87% Approve of Black-White Marriage, vs. 4% in 1958,” Politics, Gallup, July 25, 2013, www.gallup.com; Gretchen Livingston and Anna Brown, “Intermarriage in the U.S. 50 Years after Loving v. Virginia,” Pew Research Center, May 18, 2017, www.pewsocialtrends.org.

63. Dan Kopf, “Why Is Interracial Marriage on the Rise?,” Priceonomics, September 1, 2016, https://priceonomics.com.

64. Allison L. Skinner and Caitlin M. Hudac, “‘Yuck, You Disgust Me!’: Affective Bias against Interracial Couples,” Journal of Experimental Psychology 68 (January 2017): 68–77.

65. Kevin Noble Maillard, “The Multiracial Epiphany, or How to Erase an Interracial Past,” in Maillard and Cuison Villazor, Loving v. Virginia in a Post-racial World, 95; Camille A. Nelson, “Love at the Margins: The Racialization of Sex and the Sexualization of Race,” in Maillard and Cuison Villazor, Loving v. Virginia in a Post-racial World, 103, 104; Angela Onwuachi-Willig and Jacob Onwuachi-Willig, “Finding a Loving Home,” in Maillard and Cuison Villazor, Loving v. Virginia in a Post-racial World, 184.

66. Siobhan B. Somerville, “Queer Loving,” Gay and Lesbian Quarterly 11, no. 3 (2005): 357, 358.

67. Carol Johnson, “Heteronormative Citizenship and the Politics of Passing,” Sexualities 5, no. 3 (2002): 330.

68. Seidman, “Polluted Homosexual,” 58.

69. Katz, Invention of Heterosexuality.

70. Steinbugler, Beyond Loving, xix, xx.