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Группа авторов. The Handbook of Solitude
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
The Handbook of Solitude. Psychological Perspectives on Social Isolation, Social Withdrawal, and Being Alone
1 Alone Again: Revisiting Psychological Perspectives on Solitude
Editors’ Note: Solitude in the Time of COVID‐19
Alone Again: Revisiting Psychological Perspectives on Solitude
Looking Back: Solitude as Bad vs. Good
Looking Around: A Conceptual Model of the Causes and Consequences of Solitude
Looking Forward: Solitude in Context. Development
Culture
Technology and social media
Overview of the New Edition of this Handbook
Concluding Thoughts: Getting Solitude “Just Right”
References
2 Evolutionary and Neuroscientific Perspectives on Adaptive Shyness
Are There Adaptive Functions of Shyness?
Fearful and Self‐Conscious Shyness
Adaptive Aspects of Shyness Subtypes
What Are Some of the Regulatory Mechanisms of Adaptive Shyness?
Self‐Regulation and Shyness
Self‐Regulation and Adaptive Shyness Subtypes
How Are These Self‐Regulatory Mechanisms Instantiated in the Brain in Adaptive Shyness?
Frontal Brain Asymmetry and Shyness
Adaptive Subtypes of Shyness in the Brain
Frontal Brain Maturation and Adaptive Shyness
Conclusion
References
Note
3 An Attachment Perspective on Solitude and Loneliness
Attachment Theory and Research
Interpersonal Manifestations of Attachment Orientations
Attachment Orientations, Solitude, and the Capacity to Be Alone
Attachment Orientations and Feelings of Loneliness
Concluding Remarks
References
4 What Does Animal (Nonhuman) Research Tell Us About Social Deprivation and Social Isolation?
What Does Animal (Nonhuman) Research Tell Us About Social Deprivation and Social Isolation?
The Importance of Understanding the Effects of Social Deprivation and Social isolation
Brief History of Theory and Research on the Role of Social Relationships for Development
Nonhuman Primate Models. Why are Nonhuman Primate Models Useful?
Harlow’s studies on maternal deprivation and total isolation
Effects of peer‐rearing in nonhuman primates
The effects of peer deprivation in nonhuman primates
Studying Temperament in Nonhuman Primates
Rodent Models. Why Are Rodent Models Useful?
Effects of maternal separation and maternal deprivation in rodents
Effects of paternal deprivation in rodents
Postweaning social isolation in rodents
Communal rearing as an enriched social environment in rodents
The role of temperament in rodent social behaviors and social isolation
Conclusion and Future Directions
References
5 The Origins of Beneficial Solitude: Psychoanalytic Perspectives
The Solitary Self. Autoerotism, Primary Narcissism, and Secondary Narcissism
The Stimulus Barrier
Normal Autism and Symbiosis
Essential Aloneness, Noncommunicating Self, and Going‐On‐Being
Schema‐of‐Being‐With‐the‐Self
Idiom
The Capacity to Be Alone. Fort‐da
Negative Hallucination
Oceanic Feeling and Oneness Experience
The Capacity To Be Alone and the Necessity of Being Alone
Linking and the Capacity for Thought
Companions in Solitude. Transitional Objects and Transitional Phenomena
Representations of Interactions That Have Been Generalized and the Evoked Companion
Imaginary Companions, Fantasies, and Daydreaming
Conclusions. Beneficial Solitude as a Paradox
References
Notes
6 Culture, Social Withdrawal, and Development
Culture, Social Withdrawal, and Development
Research Approaches in the Study of Culture and Children’s Social Withdrawal
Exploring Culture and Shyness from a Contextual‐Developmental Perspective
Parent and peer attitudes
Developmental outcomes
Exploring Culture and Unsociability From a Contextual‐Developmental Perspective
Issues, Implications, and Future Directions
References
7 Behavioral Inhibition and Psychopathology in Childhood
Stability of Behavioral Inhibition
Factors Contributing to Development and Maintenance of BI
Genetics
Brain Structure and Function
Attentional and Cognitive Mechanisms
Parenting
Outcomes
Socioemotional Functioning
Psychopathology
Prospective Longitudinal Studies
Moderators of the BI‐Psychopathology Relationship
Neurocognitive Factors
Parenting
Life Stress
Conclusion and Future Directions
References
Note
8 Solitary Activities from Early Childhood to Adolescence: Causes, Content, and Consequences
Nonsocial Play in Peer Contexts
Reticent behavior
Solitary‐active behaviors
Solitary‐passive behaviors
Solitary activities among older children and adolescents
Solitary Activities Outside of School
Conclusions and Future Directions: Considering Contexts
References
9 Manifestations of Solitude in Interpersonal Contexts and Negative Peer Experiences:: Peer Rejection, Exclusion, and Victimization
Manifestations of Solitude in Interpersonal Contexts and Negative Peer Experiences: Peer Rejection, Exclusion, and Victimization
The Construct of Solitude and Identification of Solitary Subtypes
The Concept of Negative Peer Experiences and Corresponding Relational Forms
Solitude’s Relation to Negative Peer Experiences: Developmental Course and Directions of Effect
Premise 1: Solitude, When Manifested in Contexts that Call for Social Engagement, Fosters Negative Peer Experiences
Early childhood
Middle childhood
Adolescence
Empirical Status of Premise 1
Premise 2: Negative Peer Experiences, Particularly When Severe or Chronic, Precipitate or Exacerbate Social Withdrawal and Solitude
Empirical Status of Premise 2
Additional (Future) Research Priorities
References
Note
10 Social Withdrawal During Adolescence: The Role of Peers
Overview of Social Withdrawal Research
Social withdrawal motivations
Research on social withdrawal during adolescence
Social Withdrawal and Peers During Adolescence
Group‐Level Peer Experiences. Rejection
Victimization
Exclusion
Group level peer experiences and the role of individual characteristics
Dyadic‐Level Peer Experiences. Friendships
Friendship involvement and stability
Characteristics of friends
Friendship quality
Future Research Directions
Online peer experiences
Need to Broaden Who Is Considered a Peer and the Outcomes Evaluated
Conclusions
References
11 Social Withdrawal During Emerging Adulthood
Emerging Adulthood
Social Withdrawal
Social Withdrawal and Emerging Adulthood
Identity development
Romantic relationships and sexuality
Friendships
Social interactions
Parents
Use of time: The case of media
Indices of Well‐Being
Longer‐Term Outcomes
Culture
Conclusion
References
12 Current and Future Paths in Research on Singlehood
Conceptualizations and Definitions of Singlehood
Reasons for Singlehood
Loneliness and Singlehood
Mental Health and Singlehood
Fear of Being Single and Singlehood
An Attachment Model of Long‐Term Singlehood
Final Remarks
References
Note
13 Social Isolation, Loneliness, and Solitude in Older Adulthood
Introduction
A Multifaceted View of Time Alone: Social Isolation, Loneliness, and Solitude
Social Isolation, Loneliness, and Solitude in Adulthood: Links with Physical and Mental Health
Solitude in Older Adulthood: Time Matters
Solitude in Older Adulthood: Explanatory Mechanisms
Moderators of Solitude‐Health Links
Future Directions
Temporal Dynamics
Gain/Loss Dynamics
Operational Definitions of Solitude
Life Transitions
Cultural Differences
Applied Significance
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
14 Social Approach and Avoidance Motivations
Social Approach and Avoidance Motivations
Approach and Avoidance as Two Fundamental Systems
Social Approach and Avoidance Motivations and Related Constructs
Historical Roots of the Research on Social Approach and Avoidance Motivations
Establishing and Maintaining Social Relationships as a Function of Social Motivations
Cognitive, Emotional, and Behavioral Processes of Social Approach and Avoidance Motivations. Cognitive Processes. Perception and interpretation of social stimuli
Attribution of social success and failure
Behavioral Processes
Emotional Processes
Interplay of Social Approach and Avoidance Motivation
The Origins and Development of Social Approach and Avoidance Motivation Across the Life Span. Biological Substrates
Environmental Influences
Developmental (In)Stability in Childhood
Developmental (In)Stability Beyond Childhood. Adolescence and young adulthood
Middle adulthood and old age
Beyond Developmental Stability: Implications of Social Approach and Avoidance Motivations Across Adulthood
Implications for Interventions
Conclusions and Future Directions
References
15 Ostracism and Solitude
Overview of Ostracism
Williams’s Temporal Model of Ostracism
Reflexive stage
Reflective stage
Factors influencing recovery
Behavioral responses
Resignation stage
Methods to Examine Chronic Ostracism. Chronic ostracism and resignation
Interventions for chronic ostracism
“I Want To Be Alone”: Self‐Ostracism/Being Alone
Summary
References
16 The Possibilities of Aloneness and Solitude: Developing an Understanding Framed Through the Lens of Human Motivation and Needs
Introduction
Distinguishing Aloneness and Solitude
Solitude vs. not interacting
Solitude vs. doing something alone
Solitude vs. aloneness
Effects of Aloneness and Solitude
Aloneness and the “deactivation effect.”
Self‐focused experience as a unique quality of solitude
The Role of Autonomy in Aloneness and Solitude
Motivation When Doing Things Alone
Problems with lack of autonomy when alone or in solitude
Autonomously Spending Time Alone
Personality and Being Alone
Authenticity in Solitude
Conclusion
References
17 Getting Even Lonelier?: Psychological Well‐Being and Problematic Use of Media in the Over‐Connected Society
Problematic Use of Media
Loneliness as a Cause of Problematic Use of Media, and Mediating Factors Linking the Two
Loneliness as an Outcome of Problematic Use of Media
Vicious Bidirectional Cycle Between Loneliness and Problematic Use of Media
Two Competing Theoretical Models to Explain the Bidirectional Cycle
Buffers to Problematic Use of Media: Face‐to‐Face Interaction and Social Support
Where Do We Go From Here?
Conclusion
References
18 New Media and Solitude: Implications for Peer Relations
New Media and Solitude: Implications for Peer Relations
Theoretical Overview
Mobile Phone Use
Phones and face‐to‐face interactions
Mobile phone use and texting
Social Networking Site Use
Active public use
Active private use
Passive use
Social Exclusion
Cybervictimization
Future Directions and Conclusions
References
19 Alone Versus Together: Finding the Right Balance for Creativity
Solitude and Creativity
Social Influences on Creativity
Group Creativity
Group Creative Processes
Types of Group Creativity Paradigms
Hybrid Creativity
Diversity
Moderators
Individual differences
Type of task
Phases of creativity
Finding the Optimal Balance
Summary Perspective
References
20 Solitude as a Means to Obtaining Mental Rest in Skilled Athlete Populations
Solitude as a Means to Obtaining Mental Rest in Skilled Athlete Populations
The Concept of Rest Within the Extant Sport Psychology Research Literature
Athlete recovery
Motor skill learning
Development of expert sports performance
Eccles and Kazmier’s (2019) Model of the Psychology of Rest in Athletes
Study Method
Model of Rest Generated From Study Interviews
The state of being rested
The process of resting
Evidence of Reduced Social Interaction and Engagement in Solitude by Athletes During Rest Days
Solitude as a Facilitator of Athletes’ Resting Experiences
Reduction in thinking about one’s sport
Reduction in effortful thinking generally
Increase in internal control
Enhanced variety in one’s life and an increase in opportunities to engage in aspects of life outside of sport
Role of Solitude in Aiding Athlete Recovery, Promoting Motor Skill Learning, and Accelerating the Development of Expert Sports Performance
Implications for Research on Solitude
Directions for Future Research
Implications for Practice
Conclusions
References
21 From Shyness to Social Anxiety: Understanding Solitude in the Context of Immigration
From Shyness to Social Anxiety: Understanding Solitude in the Context of Immigration
Introduction
Solitude in the Context of Immigration: The Experience of Being “Othered”
Social categorization of immigrant
Foreign languages and accents
Separation, marginalization, and involuntary solitude
The process of immigration and experiences of shyness in intergroup contexts
Perpetual foreigner stereotype and intergroup (social) anxiety
Understanding Solitude in the Context of Immigration: Theoretical Models and Empirical Evidence
The self‐construal model and comparisons of social anxiety and shyness between immigrant and the majority groups in the host culture
The acculturative stress model and individual variations in shyness and social anxiety among immigrants
The need for an integrated model
Summary and Future Directions
References
22 Introversion, Solitude, and Happiness
Introversion, Solitude, and Happiness
Overview of Introversion‐Extraversion
A Closer Look at the Links Between Introversion and Happiness
Objection #1: happiness measures are biased toward extraverts
Objection #2: extraversion measures are biased toward happiness
Objection #3: introverts are happier in cultures that aren’t so individualistic
Objection #4: introverts have fewer, but stronger, friendships — enough to create happiness
Objection #5: c’mon!?! My introvert friend and I are happy
Why Does Introversion‐Extraversion Predict Happiness?
Increasing Introverts’ Happiness
Conclusion
References
23 Solitary and Social Aspects of Restoration in Nature
Restoration Studies Using Individuals and Small Groups as Participants
Private Spaces in Childhood and Adolescence
Restorative Experiences, Solitude, and Social Relationships in Natural Favorite Places
Children and adolescence
Adults
The Social Context of Restoration
Company of intimates
Presence of Unknown Others
Presence of both known and unknown others
Conclusions and Future Directions
References
24 Intentional Solitude and Mindfulness: The Benefits of Being Alone
Seeking Solitude Through Mindfulness and Meditation
Positive Solitude/Mindfulness for Children and Adolescents
Research on mindfulness and yoga for children and adolescents
Gaining Acceptance and Perspective in Positive Mindful Solitude in Adulthood
Mindful solitude and individual well‐being
Mindful solitude and relational well‐being
Mindful solitude and sexual well‐being
Developing Positive Mindful Solitude
Conclusion
References
25 Loneliness and Associated Mental Health Sequelae in Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Theoretical Basis of Loneliness
Loneliness in ASD
Understanding Loneliness in ASD
The Experience of Loneliness in ASD
Multiple Reporters on Friendships in ASD: What Do We Know and How Do We Know It?
Identification of friends
Friendship quality
Summary
Potential Negative Sequelae of Loneliness
Protective Factors Against Loneliness Among Individuals with ASD
Social support
Reciprocal friendships
Belonging and social connectedness
Potential for Interventions
Adult paraprofessional as support
Social skills training
Peer‐Mediated Interventions
Looking Forward: A Focus on Interventions for Adults with ASD
Conclusion
References
26 Social Anxiety Disorder and Emotional Solitude
Social Anxiety Disorder and Emotional Solitude
Social Anxiety and Social Anxiety Disorder
Developmental Roots of Social Anxiety Disorder
Social Anxiety in Childhood and Adolescence
Social Anxiety in Young Adults
Social Anxiety and Relational Behaviors in Adults
Safety‐Seeking and Relationships
Future Directions
Summary
References
27 Hikikomori: Risks and Consequences of Extreme Self‐imposed Social Marginalization
Introduction
The Well‐Being of Young People Who Live in High‐Income Countries
Hikikomori – Prolonged Socially Withdrawn Individuals
The evolution of the definition and classification of hikikomori
The challenges faced by research and clinical teams in the identification of hikikomori as research participants
Theoretical Understandings of Hikikomori
Psychological perspectives
The sociocultural perspective
The Three‐Process Framework of Hikikomori: Risks and Consequences
The pathway to hikikomori: the family
The pathway to hikikomori: schooling
The pathway to hikikomori: societal factors
The application of the proposed framework in Hong Kong
Challenges and Future Directions
Quantifying withdrawal behavior as a burden of disability
Innovative ideas for engagement and intervention are needed
Interventions for family and caregivers are limited
Conclusion
References
Note
28 Solitary Confinement Is Not “Solitude”:: The Worst Case Scenario of Being “Alone” in Prison
The Adverse Effects of Social Isolation, Social Exclusion, and Loneliness
Solitary Confinement Is a Form of “Toxic” Social Isolation
The Specific Psychological Effects of Solitary Confinement
Extreme and Prolonged Effects of Solitary Confinement
Reducing and Eliminating the Use of Solitary Confinement
Conclusion
References
29 Social Withdrawal in Childhood: A Personal History of Theory and Research That Guided a Program of Developmental Research
Social Withdrawal in Childhood: A Personal History of Theory and Research That Guided a Program of Developmental Research. A Personal “Introduction”
Remembering Your Ancients
Remembering Mary Northway
Carmichael’s Manual of Child Psychology, Third Edition (1970)
Piaget
Flavell
Other Manual influences
Beginnings
The University of Waterloo Early Childhood Education Center
The 1970s: Studies of Play, Social Interaction, and Social Cognition
The Waterloo Longitudinal Project (WLP) The Conceptual Basis for Studying Social Withdrawal
Exploration → Play → Problem‐Solving
Phase 1 – Preschoolers and Kindergarteners
Choosing extremes
Phase 2: Elementary School
Observing social withdrawal in elementary schools
Peer ratings of social withdrawal
Correlates and concomitants of social withdrawal in elementary school
Correlates and concomitants of social withdrawal in the fourth and fifth grades
The stability of social withdrawal
Risk factors associated with social withdrawal
A caveat
The WLP: A summary
The Magical Years: 1978–1987. Stanford and its consequences
SRCD 1983, Robert Hinde, and Washington 1984
Munich, 1985
Beijing, Colorado, and Killam 1987
Parental Beliefs, Parenting, and Social Withdrawal: The Child in the Family Study
Summary
The Waterloo Toddler Project
Additional findings
Summary
Summary and Conclusions
References
Note
Index
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