Оглавление
Группа авторов. Infectious Disease Management in Animal Shelters
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
Infectious Disease Management in Animal Shelters
Contributors
Preface
Acknowledgments
1 Introduction to Infectious Disease Management in Animal Shelters
1.1 Why This Book?
1.1.1 Fundamentals of Disease Control in Shelters
1.1.2 The Production Medicine Model
1.1.3 What's New in the Second Edition?
1.2 The Growth of Shelter Medicine
1.2.1 Continued Advances in Animal Shelter Management
1.3 Capacity for Care: Blending Shelter Medicine and Management
1.3.1 Right‐Sizing the Population
1.3.2 Length of Stay (LOS)
1.3.2.1 Pathway Planning and Daily Rounds
1.3.2.2 Fast Track Management and Open Selection
1.3.2.2.1 Fast Track Management
1.3.2.2.2 Open Selection
1.3.2.3 Other Methods to Reduce the Length of Stay
1.3.3 The Importance of Good Housing
1.3.4 Balancing Intake and Positive Outcomes
1.4 Conclusion
References
2 Wellness
2.1 Introduction: Wellness Defined
2.2 The Critical Importance of Wellness Protocols for Shelters
2.2.1 Goals of a Shelter Wellness Program
2.2.2 Quality of Life
2.2.3 Guidelines for Standards of Care in Animal Shelters
2.2.4 Considerations Regarding Infectious Disease Transmission
2.2.4.1 Population Management and Capacity for Care
2.2.4.2 Components of a Shelter Wellness Program
2.3 The Problem‐Oriented Approach to Shelter Medicine
2.3.1 Step 1: Database Collection
2.3.1.1 History
2.3.1.2 Physical and Behavioral Examination
2.3.2 Step 2: Problem Identification
2.3.3 Steps 3: Plan Formulation
2.3.4 Step 4: Assessment and Follow‐Up
2.3.5 Medical Record Keeping and Data Collection
2.4 Policy and Protocol Development
2.5 Wellness: Physical Health
2.5.1 Vaccination
2.5.2 Parasite Control and Prevention
2.5.3 Spay‐Neuter
2.5.4 Identification (Collar/Tag, Microchip)
2.5.5 Proper Nutrition and Physical Exercise
2.5.6 Grooming
2.5.7 Periodontal/Oral Disease Prevention
2.5.8 Individual‐Specific Care
2.6 Wellness: BehavioralHealth
2.6.1 The Role of Stress
2.6.2 Behavioral Needs of Cats and Dogs
2.7 Proper Housing
2.7.1 Long‐Term Housing
2.7.2 Housing Design Considerations
2.8 Enrichment
2.9 Environmental Wellness
2.9.1 Emotional Environment
2.9.2 Physical Environment. 2.9.2.1 Population Density
2.9.2.2 Segregation of Animals and Traffic Patterns
2.9.2.3 Sanitation (Cleaning and Disinfection)
2.9.2.4 Other Facility Operations
2.9.2.5 Staff Training
2.10 Conclusion
References
3 Data Surveillance
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Disease Surveillance
3.2.1 Importance of Disease Surveillance
3.2.2 Clear Objectives
3.2.3 Diseases/Signs to Surveil
3.2.4 Data Collection, Analysis, Interpretation, and Communication
3.2.5 Frequency of Review, Interpretation and Communication
3.2.6 Data Quality and Administrative Buy‐In
3.2.7 Recording Changes Affecting the Surveillance Program
3.3 Length of Stay (LOS) in Shelters
3.4 Capacity for Care
3.4.1 Housing Capacity
3.4.2 Staffing Capacity
3.5 Other Disease‐Related Metrics
3.6 Software Needs
3.7 Shelters Without Shelter‐Specific Software
3.8 The Future
3.9 Summary
References
4 Diagnostic Testing
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Obtaining Diagnostic Samples
Box 4.1 Minimum Recommended Diagnostic Testing Supplies and Equipment. Supplies
Equipment
Test Kits
4.3 Types of Diagnostic Tests
4.3.1 Core Diagnostic Tools. 4.3.1.1 Case History
4.3.1.2 Physical Examination
4.3.1.3 Response to Treatment
4.3.2 Primary Diagnostic Testing. 4.3.2.1 ELISA
4.3.2.2 Diagnostic Cytology
4.3.2.3 Fecal Examination
4.3.2.4 Urinalysis
4.3.3 Secondary Diagnostic Testing. 4.3.3.1 Complete Blood Count and Blood Chemistry Analysis
4.3.3.2 Additional Secondary Tests
4.3.4 Diagnostic Laboratory Tests. 4.3.4.1 Serology
4.3.4.1.1 Primary Binding Tests (Note that ELISAs including lateral flow assays are common primary binding tests; these have been discussed earlier in the text.)
4.3.4.1.2 Secondary Binding Tests
4.3.4.1.3 Tertiary Tests
4.3.4.1.4 Molecular Assays
4.3.4.2 Microbiological Tests
4.4 Indications for Diagnostic Testing
4.4.1 Individual Animal Testing
Box 4.2 Diagnostic Testing Considerations. Shelter Operations
Testing Methodology
Animal and Human Health
Disease Characteristics
4.4.2 Population Level Testing
4.5 Accuracy and Testing Strategy
4.6 Standard Operating Procedures. 4.6.1 Protocol Development and Staff Training
4.6.2 Diagnostic Algorithms
4.7 Conclusion
References
5 Necropsy Techniques
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Why Sample Tissues at Necropsy?
5.3 The Necropsy. 5.3.1 General Considerations
5.3.2 Documentation. 5.3.2.1 Written Data
5.3.2.2 Photographic Data
5.4 Steps in Performing a Necropsy. 5.4.1 The Materials Needed for a Necropsy
5.4.2 General Information
5.4.2.1 Resources for Performing a Complete Necropsy
5.4.2.2 Opening the Animal for Analysis and Sampling
5.4.2.3 Necropsy Analysis and Sampling, a Beginning
5.4.2.4 Tissue Checklist for Necropsy
5.5 The Diagnostic Shelter Necropsy
5.5.1 Sampling a Carcass, General Considerations
5.5.2 Necropsy and Sampling for Gastrointestinal Disease
5.5.2.1 Tissue Checklist forGastrointestinal Disease
5.5.2.2 Parvovirus (Canine Parvovirus (CPV), Feline Panleukopenia Virus (FPV))
5.5.2.2.1 Gross Findings of Parvoviral Disease
5.5.3 Respiratory Disease, General
5.5.3.1 Tissue Checklist for Respiratory Disease
5.5.3.2 Common Respiratory Diseases in the Shelter. 5.5.3.2.1 Canine Distemper Virus (CDV)
5.5.3.2.2 Canine Infectious Respiratory Disease (CIRD, “Kennel Cough,” Multiple Agents)
5.5.3.2.3 Canine Influenza: (CIV)
5.5.3.2.4 Feline infectious respiratory disease (FIRD) (Upper respiratory infection (URI))
5.6 Other Shelter Necropsies. 5.6.1 Necropsy on a Previously Healthy Animal Found Dead. 5.6.1.1 Acute Death
5.6.2 Feline Infectious Peritonitis (FIP)
5.7 Conclusion
References
6 Outbreak Management
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Infectious Disease Outbreaks
6.3 Infectious Disease and Outbreak Response Plan
6.4 Outbreak Prevention
6.5 Outbreak Detection
6.6 Outbreak Investigation
6.6.1 Define and Identify Cases
6.6.2 Diagnosis
6.6.3 Data Collection
6.7 Outbreak Epidemiology
6.7.1 Attack Rates
6.7.2 Epidemic (Epi) Curves
6.8 Control Measures
6.8.1 Enhanced Disease Surveillance
6.8.2 Isolation, Quarantine, and Other Alternatives
6.8.2.1 Isolation
6.8.2.2 Quarantine
6.8.2.3 Isolation and Quarantine Parameters
6.8.2.4 Alternatives to Isolation and Quarantine
6.8.3 Risk and Exposure Assessment
6.8.3.1 Pathogen Related Factors
6.8.3.2 Environment‐Related Factors
6.8.3.3 Host Related Factors
6.8.3.4 Serology for CPV, FPV and CDV
6.8.3.5 Other Related Factors
6.8.4 Sanitation
6.8.5 Determine Additional Staffing Needs
6.8.6 Protect at‐Risk Animals in the Shelter
6.8.7 Protect at‐Risk Humans
6.8.8 Protect Incoming Animals
6.9 Decision‐Making
6.9.1 Animals in the Community
6.9.1.1 Animals Entering the Shelter
6.9.1.2 Suspending Intake
6.9.2 Quarantining a Shelter
6.9.3 Requesting Assistance from Shelter Medicine Experts
6.9.4 Requesting Assistance from Public Health Authorities
6.9.5 Caring for the Caregivers
6.10 Working with the Media
6.11 Community Considerations
6.11.1 Zoonotic Disease Concerns
6.12 Conclusion
6.A Sample Disease Outbreak Tracking Form
References
7 Pharmacology
7.1 Principles of Drug Decision Making and Therapeutics
7.2 Searching for and Applying Evidence for Efficacy: Is the Drug Likely to Improve Animal Outcomes?
7.2.1 Understanding Statistics
7.2.2 Estimating the Treatment Effect from Published Studies: How Much Difference Did the Drug Make?
Example 7.1 Robenacoxib for Post‐Operative Pain Control in Dogs (Friton et al. 2017)
Example 7.2 Cefovecin for Abscesses and Wound Infections in Cats (Six et al. 2009)
7.2.3 What if the Drug Formulation and Regimen in the Published Evidence is Not the Same as the One Desired for Use?
7.3 Drug Options Should be Refined Based on Efficacy by Consideration of Constraints on those Options
7.3.1 Legal and Ethical Constraints or Restrictions. 7.3.1.1 Label and Extra‐label Drug Use, Including Compounding
7.3.1.2 How Much Diagnostic Workup is Needed to Justify Therapeutic Intervention?
7.3.1.3 Initiation of Drug Treatment
7.3.2 Other Constraints that Might Limit the Choice of Drug
7.4 Application of Decision Making to Antibiotics. 7.4.1 General Principles of Antimicrobial Drug Therapy
7.4.2 Specific Steps of Decision Making for Antimicrobial Drugs
7.4.2.1 Confirm the Presence of a Disease that is Likely to Respond to Antimicrobial Drugs or for which there is Evidence that Antimicrobial Drugs will Influence the Outcome
7.4.2.2 Consider Antimicrobial Drug Options
7.4.2.3 Determine if there is Information to Support One Drug Option over another
7.4.2.4 Interpreting Antimicrobial Susceptibility Data from Individual Cases, Populations, or Antibiograms
7.4.3 Completing the Cycle of Antimicrobial Stewardship: Assessing Outcomes and Evaluating Use Practices
7.5 The Shelter Pharmacy
7.6 Conclusion
References
8 Sanitation
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Components of the Sanitation Process. 8.2.1 General Considerations
8.2.2 Cleaning
8.2.3 Disinfection
8.2.3.1 Product Preparation
8.2.3.2 Contact Time
8.2.3.3 Application Systems
8.2.3.4 The Importance of Drying
8.2.4 Other Important Aspects of Sanitation. 8.2.4.1 Animal Housing/Facility Design
8.2.4.2 Population Management
8.3 Common Products used in Sanitation Procedures in Animal Shelters
8.3.1 Detergents and Degreasers
8.3.2 Chemical Disinfectants
8.3.2.1 Chlorine Compounds
8.3.2.2 Quaternary Ammonium Compounds
8.3.2.3 Potassium Peroxymonosulfate
8.3.2.4 Accelerated Hydrogen Peroxide
8.3.3 Disinfectant Toxicity
8.3.4 Physical Disinfection
8.4 Order of Cleaning and Disinfection
8.5 Where to Focus Sanitation Efforts
8.6 Sanitation of Animal Housing and Handling Areas
8.6.1 Cleaning
8.6.1.1 Spot Cleaning
8.6.2 Disinfecting
8.7 Sanitation of Animal‐Related Items. 8.7.1 Bowls, Toys and Litter Boxes
8.7.2 Laundry
8.7.3 Transport Carriers and Vehicles
8.7.4 Other Equipment
8.8 Sanitation for the Staff. 8.8.1 Hand Sanitation
8.8.1.1 Gloves
8.8.1.2 Handwashing
8.8.1.3 Hand Sanitizers
8.8.2 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
8.8.3 Clothing
8.8.4 Footwear
8.9 Developing a Shelter Sanitation Plan
8.9.1 Written Protocols
8.9.2 Achieving and Verifying Success
8.10 Conclusion
References
9 Canine and Feline Vaccinations and Immunology
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Vaccinations and Immunity. 9.2.1 Importance of Immunity and Vaccination
9.2.2 Community Immunity
9.2.3 Immune Status of Animals Entering Shelters
9.3 Vaccine Characteristics: Efficacy, Onset of Action and Duration of Immunity. 9.3.1 Vaccine Efficacy
9.3.2 Onset of Immunity for Modified Live Versus Killed Vaccines
9.3.3 Intranasal and Oral Modified Live Vaccines
9.3.4 Duration of Immunity
9.4 Vaccination Protocols for Shelters. 9.4.1 Core Vaccines for Shelter Cats and Dogs
9.4.2 Addition of Non‐core Components to Core Vaccines
9.4.3 Timing of Vaccination: Vaccination on Intake to the Shelter is Essential
9.4.4 Special Considerations for Vaccination. 9.4.4.1 Vaccination of Puppies and Kittens
9.4.4.2 Vaccination of Sick or Injured Animals
9.4.4.3 Vaccination of Pregnant and Nursing Animals
9.4.4.4 Vaccination of Animals Repeatedly Admitted to the Shelter
9.5 Vaccine Handling, Administration, and Adverse Reactions. 9.5.1 Care and Handling of Vaccines
9.5.2 Training for Staff Administering Vaccines
9.5.3 Vaccination Site Guidelines for Cats
9.5.4 Adverse Reactions
9.6 Core Vaccines for Shelter Dogs and Cats
9.6.1 The Canine Shelter Core Vaccines. 9.6.1.1 CDV Vaccine
9.6.1.2 CPV‐2 Vaccine
9.6.1.3 Canine Adenovirus Type 1 and 2 Vaccine
9.6.1.4 CPi Vaccine
9.6.1.5 Bordetella bronchiseptica Vaccine
9.6.1.6 Canine Influenza Virus (CIV) Vaccines
9.6.2 The Feline Shelter Core Vaccines
9.6.2.1 Feline Panleukopenia Virus (FPV) Vaccine
9.6.2.2 Feline Calicivirus Vaccines
9.6.2.3 Feline Herpesvirus Type 1 (FVR) Vaccines
9.6.2.4 Intranasal Combination Products for Cats
9.6.3 Rabies Vaccines for Dogs and Cats
9.7 Optional, Non‐core Vaccines for Cats and Dogs in a Shelter
9.7.1 Feline Leukemia Virus (FeLV) Vaccines
9.7.2 Feline Immunodeficiency Virus (FIV) Vaccines
9.7.3 Bordetella bronchiseptica and C. felis Vaccines
9.7.4 Other Non‐core Vaccines
9.8 Juvenile Animals. 9.8.1 Maternal Antibody Interference with Vaccination
9.8.1.1 Variation in Maternal Antibody Levels
9.8.2 Risk of Vaccine Use in Very Young Animals
9.8.3 Other Issues with Vaccinating Juvenile Animals
9.8.4 Biosecurity of Juvenile Animals
9.8.5 Colostrum Replacement for Orphans
9.9 Use of Hyperimmune Serum for Disease Prevention
9.10 Risk Assessment and Evaluation of Serologic Immunity for Canine Distemper, Canine Parvovirus and Feline Panleukopenia
9.10.1 Options for Antibody Titer Testing
9.10.2 Initial Evaluation for Clinical Signs
9.10.3 Interpretation of Positive Titer Results in Adult Dogs and Cats
9.10.4 Interpretation of Negative Titer Results in Adult Dogs and Cats
9.10.5 Interpretation of Titer Results in Juvenile Animals
9.11 Vaccine Effects on Diagnostic Testing. 9.11.1 FeLV (Feline Leukemia) and FIV (Feline Immunodeficiency) Vaccine Effects on Diagnostic Testing
9.11.2 CPV‐2 (Canine Parvo) and FPV (Feline Panleukopenia) Vaccine Effects on Diagnostic Testing
9.11.3 CDV Vaccine Effects on Diagnostic Testing
9.11.4 FHV‐1 (Feline Herpesvirus) and FCV (Feline Calicivirus) Vaccine Effects on Diagnostic Testing
9.11.5 Bordetella/CAV‐2/CPi (Canine Parainfluenza) Intranasal Vaccine Effects on Diagnostic Testing
9.11.6 Canine Lyme Vaccine Effects on Diagnostic Testing
9.11.7 Antibody (Titer) Testing for the Diagnosis of Canine Distemper, Canine Parvovirus and Feline Panleukopenia
9.12 Conclusion
References
10 Canine Infectious Respiratory Disease (CIRD)
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Etiological Agents, Epidemiology, and Course of Disease
10.2.1 Viral Pathogens
10.2.1.1 Canine Parainfluenza Virus (CPiV)
10.2.1.2 Canine Adenovirus Type 2 (CAV‐2)
10.2.1.3 Canine Respiratory Coronavirus (CRCoV)
10.2.1.4 Canine Herpesvirus (CHV)
10.2.1.5 Canine Pneumovirus (CnPnV)
10.2.1.6 Canine Distemper (CDV)
10.2.1.7 Canine Influenza (CIV)
10.2.2 Bacterial Pathogens. 10.2.2.1 Bordetella bronchiseptica (B. bronchiseptica)
10.2.2.2 Mycoplasma Spp
10.2.2.3 Streptococcus equi Subsp. zooepidemicus (Strep. zoo)
10.2.2.4 Additional Bacterial Agents
10.3 Prevalence
10.4 Diagnosis
10.5 Prevention and Control
10.5.1 Housing
10.5.2 Air Quality
10.5.3 Population Management and Capacity for Care
10.5.4 Behavioral Enrichment
10.5.5 Surveillance
10.5.6 Quarantine Recommendations
10.5.7 Isolation Recommendations
10.5.8 Vaccination
10.5.8.1 Vaccine Safety and Efficacy
10.5.9 Sanitation and Disinfection
10.6 Treatment
10.6.1 Antimicrobials
10.6.2 Antitussives
10.6.3 Supportive Care and Environmental Enrichment
10.7 Implications for Foster Care and Adoption
10.8 Implications for Relocation Programs
10.9 Euthanasia Guidelines
10.10 Conclusion
References
11 Canine Distemper Virus
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Agent and Epidemiology
11.2.1 Biotypes of CDV
11.3 Transmission
11.4 Pathogenesis
11.5 Risk Factors for Infection
11.6 Incubation Period, Clinical Signs and Disease Course
11.6.1 Secondary Infections Associated with Immunosuppression
11.6.2 Recovery
11.6.2.1 Viral Shedding, Carrier State and Confirming Recovery
11.7 Diagnosis of Canine Distemper
11.7.1 Diagnostic Tests
11.7.1.1 Reverse Transcriptase‐Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT‐ PCR) Assay
11.7.1.2 Serology
11.7.1.3 Postmortem Testing
11.7.1.4 Immunohistochemistry and Fluorescent Antibody Tests
11.7.2 Initial Diagnostic Strategy
11.8 Treatment
11.9 Prevention, Management, and Response to Disease in the Shelter. 11.9.1 Vaccination
11.9.1.1 Vaccine Types
11.9.1.2 Vaccine Efficacy and Safety
11.9.1.3 Vaccine Handling
11.9.1.4 Vaccine Timing andRevaccination
11.9.1.5 Vaccination of Puppies
11.9.1.6 Special Considerations for Pregnant Dogs in a Shelter
11.9.1.7 CDV Vaccination of Other Species
11.9.2 Environmental Control
11.9.3 Isolation and Separation
11.9.3.1 Planned Co‐mingling and All‐In All‐Out Housing
11.10 CDV Outbreak Management
11.10.1 Outbreak Risk Factors
11.10.2 Risk Assessment
11.10.3 Quarantine Requirements for High‐Risk/Exposed Dogs
11.10.4 Creating a “Clean Break”: Protection of Incoming Dogs During an Outbreak
11.10.5 Summary of Outbreak Control
11.11 Considerations for Adoption
11.12 Conclusion
References
12 Canine Influenza
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Epidemiology of Canine Influenza Virus. 12.2.1 Etiologic Agent
12.2.1.1 H3N8 Subtype
12.2.1.2 H3N2 Subtype
12.2.2 Susceptible Species
12.2.3 Prevalence
12.2.4 Morbidity, Mortality, and Prognosis
12.2.5 Transmission
12.2.6 Incubation and Shedding Periods
12.3 Clinical Signs
12.4 Diagnosis
12.4.1 Swabs for Immunoassays, PCR, and Virus Isolation
12.4.2 Serology
12.4.3 Ancillary Diagnostic Work‐Up
12.5 Treatment
12.6 Prevention and Management
12.6.1 Risk Assessment
12.6.2 Quarantine and Isolation
12.6.2.1 Post‐infection Immunity
12.6.2.2 Euthanasia Criteria
12.6.2.3 Community Education
12.6.3 Environmental Contamination and Disinfection
12.6.4 Vaccination
12.7 Conclusion
References
13 Feline Infectious Respiratory Disease
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Causative Agents, Pathogenesis and Clinical Signs
13.2.1 Feline Herpesvirus (FHV‐1)
13.2.2 Feline Calicivirus (FCV)
13.2.3 Influenza Viruses
13.2.4 Mycoplasma Spp
13.2.5 Bordetella bronchiseptica
13.2.6 Chlamydia felis
13.2.7 Other Bacterial Agents
13.2.7.1 Streptococcus canis
13.2.7.2 Streptococcus equi subspecies zooepidemicus
13.3 Transmission
13.4 Clinical Epidemiology
13.5 The Effect ofEnvironment and Shelter Type on Pathogen Prevalence
13.6 Risk Factors forClinical Respiratory Disease
13.7 Diagnostics
13.8 Treatment
13.8.1 Antiviral Agents
13.8.1.1 Famciclovir
13.8.1.2 Topical OphthalmicAntiviral Drugs
13.8.1.3 L‐Lysine
13.8.2 Antimicrobial Treatment
13.8.3 Symptomatic Therapy
13.8.4 Housing for Cats Undergoing Treatment
13.8.5 Considerations for Adopters
13.9 Management and Prevention of URTD. 13.9.1 The Role of Stress
13.9.2 Housing and Stress
13.9.3 Length of Stay (LOS)
13.9.3.1 Foster‐Care Programs
13.9.4 Minimizing the Risk of Exposure. 13.9.4.1 Written Intake Protocols
13.9.4.2 Intake Triage
13.9.4.3 Shelter Housing, Design and Traffic Patterns
13.9.4.4 Disease Surveillance
13.9.4.5 Environmental Decontamination
13.9.5 Vaccination
13.9.6 Outbreak Management
13.10 Conclusion
References
14 Canine Parvovirus and Other Canine Enteropathogens
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Canine Parvovirus‐2
14.2.1 Etiology and Epidemiology
14.2.2 Pathophysiology
14.2.3 Clinical Signs
14.2.4 Diagnosis
14.2.5 Treatment
14.2.6 Outbreak Response
14.2.7 Prevention
14.2.7.1 Vaccination
14.2.7.2 Sanitation
14.2.7.3 Biosecurity
14.2.7.4 Population Management
14.3 Other Enteropathogens
14.3.1 Canine Coronavirus
14.3.2 Canine Circovirus
14.3.3 Clostridium spp
14.3.4 Canine Parvovirus‐1 (Minute Virus)
14.3.5 Diagnostics
14.4 Conclusion
References
15 Feline Panleukopenia
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Epidemiology and Course of Disease. 15.2.1 Etiologic Agent
15.2.2 Susceptibility
15.2.3 Prevalence
15.2.4 Modes of Transmission
15.2.5 Pathophysiology
15.2.6 Incubation Period and Carrier State
15.2.7 Shedding
15.3 Clinical Signs
15.3.1 Subacute Form
15.3.2 Peracute Form
15.3.3 Acute Form
15.3.4 Perinatal
15.4 Morbidity/Mortality/Prognosis
15.5 Diagnosis
15.5.1 History
15.5.2 Antigen Testing
15.5.3 Antibody Testing
15.5.4 Hematology
15.5.5 Necropsy
15.5.5.1 Histopathology
15.5.6 Additional Tests
15.5.7 Differential Diagnoses
15.6 Treatment
15.6.1 Nursing Care
15.6.2 Fluid Therapy
15.6.3 Colloids, Plasma, or Whole Blood Transfusions
15.6.4 Antibiotics
15.6.5 Antiemetics
15.6.6 Nutrition
15.6.7 Pain Management
15.6.8 Additional Therapeutics
15.6.9 Immunity after Recovery
15.6.10 Euthanasia Decisions
15.7 Prevention and Control/Risk Assessment. 15.7.1 Risk Assessment
15.7.1.1 Host Factors
15.7.1.2 Environmental Factors
15.7.1.3 Infectious Agent Factors
15.7.2 Quarantine Recommendations
15.7.3 Isolation Recommendations
15.7.4 Role of Titer Testing
15.7.5 Vaccination
15.7.5.1 FPV Vaccine Types
15.7.5.2 Vaccination Guidelines
15.7.5.3 Vaccine Efficacy, Side Effects and Safety
15.7.5.4 Role of Vaccination and Passive Immunity in a Shelter Outbreak
15.7.6 Environmental Control‐Sanitation
15.7.7 Housing
15.8 Implications for Adoption and Foster Care
15.9 Conclusion
References
16 Feline Coronavirus and Feline Infectious Peritonitis
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Etiology
16.3 Epidemiology. 16.3.1 FECV
16.3.2 FIP
16.4 Pathogenesis. 16.4.1 FECV Enteritis
16.4.2 FIPV
16.5 Transmission. 16.5.1 FECV
16.5.2 FIPV
16.6 Immune Response. 16.6.1 FECV
16.6.2 FIPV
16.7 Clinical Signs. 16.7.1 FECV
16.7.2 FIP
16.8 Diagnosis. 16.8.1 FECV Enteritis. 16.8.1.1 FCoV Serology
16.8.1.2 Reverse Transcriptase‐Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT‐PCR) for FCoV
16.8.2 FIP. 16.8.2.1 FCoV Serology
16.8.2.2 Hematology and Serum Chemistry
16.8.2.3 Imaging
16.8.2.4 Effusion Analysis
16.8.2.5 Rivalta's Test
16.8.2.6 Molecular Diagnostics
16.8.2.6.1 RT‐PCR for FCoV
16.8.2.6.2 RT‐PCR plus S Gene Mutation Detection
16.8.2.7 Biopsy and Other Ante‐Mortem Ancillary Tests
16.8.2.8 Necropsy
16.9 Treatment. 16.9.1 FECV
16.9.2 FIP
16.10 Prevention and Control
16.10.1 Capacity for Care
16.10.2 Sanitation and Disinfection
16.10.3 Housing and Husbandry
16.10.4 Management of Co‐morbidities
16.10.5 Vaccination
16.10.6 Diagnostic Testing
16.10.7 Quarantine and Isolation
16.11 Outbreak Management. 16.11.1 FECV
16.11.2 FIPV
16.12 Euthanasia Guidelines. 16.12.1 FECV
16.12.2 FIP
16.13 Client Education/Implications for Adoption, Relocation and Foster Care
16.13.1 Management of Littermates of FIP Positive Cats
16.13.1.1 Adoption with Full Disclosure
16.13.1.2 Limited Quarantine
16.13.1.3 Euthanasia
16.13.2 Management of Non‐related (Non‐sibling) Kittens
16.13.3 Management of Large Groups of Cats of with Unknown Genetic Relationships
16.13.4 Risk to Other Species
16.14 Conclusion
References
17 Internal Parasites
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Parasite Transmission and Treatment Considerations in Animal Shelters
17.3 Parasites with Direct Transmission
17.3.1 Parasites with Immediate Transmission. 17.3.1.1 Protozoa. 17.3.1.1.1 Giardia
17.3.1.1.2 Tritrichomonas foetus (Syn. T. blagburni)
17.3.1.1.3 Cryptosporidium spp
17.3.1.2 Nematodes
17.3.1.2.1 Ollulanus tricuspis
17.3.1.2.2 Filaroides spp
17.3.2 Parasites Requiring some Maturation in the Environment. 17.3.2.1 Intestinal Coccidia (Cystoisospora spp.)
17.3.2.2 Toxoplasma gondii
17.3.2.3 Neospora caninum
17.3.2.4 Strongyloides stercoralis
17.3.2.5 Roundworms (Ascarids)
17.3.2.5.1 Toxascaris leonina
17.3.2.5.2 Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati
17.3.2.5.3 Baylisascaris procyonis
17.3.2.6 Hookworms
17.3.2.7 Whipworms
17.4 Parasites with Indirect Transmission. 17.4.1 Parasites with the Potential for Shelter Transmission. 17.4.1.1 Babesia spp
17.4.1.2 Trypanosoma cruzi
17.4.1.3 Dipylidium caninum
17.4.1.4 Dirofilaria immitis
17.4.2 Parasites Unlikely to be Perpetuated in a Shelter Setting. 17.4.2.1 Taeniid Tapeworms
17.4.2.2 Trematodes, Nematodes, and Other Cestodes
17.4.2.3 Cuterebra
17.5 Conclusion
References
18 Heartworm Disease
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Lifecycle of Dirofilaria immitis
18.3 Transmission
18.4 Heartworm Disease in Dogs
18.5 Heartworm Disease in Cats
18.6 Heartworm Disease in Ferrets
18.7 Screening and Diagnostic Testing. 18.7.1 Screening and Diagnostic Testing in Dogs
18.7.1.1 Additional Diagnostics for Infected Dogs
18.7.2 Screening and Diagnostic Testing in Cats
18.7.3 Screening and Diagnostic Testing in Ferrets
18.7.4 Diagnostic Strategies for Animal Shelters
18.8 Prevention
18.9 Heartworm Treatment. 18.9.1 General Considerations Regarding Heartworm Treatment
18.9.1.1 Cage Rest
18.9.1.2 Timing of Spay/Neuter and Other Elective Surgery
18.9.1.3 Relocation and Transport Considerations
18.9.2 Pharmacologic Considerations in the Management of Heartworm Infection
18.9.3 Principles of Adulticidal Therapy
18.9.3.1 Wolbachia and the Use of Doxycycline
18.9.4 Heartworm Treatment Protocol Selections for Dogs. 18.9.4.1 Three ‐Dose “3D” (Split Dosing) Protocol
18.9.4.2 Two‐Dose “2D” Protocol
18.9.4.3 Non‐Arsenical Protocols
18.9.4.4 Post‐Treatment Testing
18.9.4.5 Treatment for Cats and Ferrets
18.10 Conclusion
References
19 External Parasites
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Ectoparasites with all Life Stages on the Host
19.2.1 Lice
19.2.2 Mites
19.2.2.1 Demodex spp
19.2.2.2 Otodectes cynotis
19.2.2.3 Cheyletiella spp
19.2.2.4 Sarcoptes scabiei var. canis
19.2.2.5 Notoedres cati
19.2.2.6 Lynxacarus radovskyi
19.3 Ectoparasites withEnvironmental and HostStages
19.3.1 Fleas
19.3.2 Larval Flies (Myiasis)
19.3.2.1 Primary Myiasis‐Inducing Flies in Cats and Dogs
19.3.2.2 Secondary Myiasis‐Inducing Flies in Cats and Dogs
19.4 Temporary Ectoparasites Associated with Hosts Only While Feeding
19.4.1 Biting Flies and Mosquitoes
19.4.2 Bugs
19.4.3 Ticks
19.5 Conclusion
19.A Ectoparasites Potentially Affecting Shelter Animals
References
20 Dermatophytosis
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Etiology. 20.2.1 Agent Description
20.2.2 Key Factors Affecting Susceptibility to Infections
20.3 Pathogenesis
20.4 Disease Course. 20.4.1 Incubation Period
20.4.2 Immunity After Recovery
20.4.3 Carrier State
20.5 Transmission
20.6 Clinical Presentation and Differential Diagnoses
20.7 Diagnosis
20.7.1 Basic Diagnostic Tools
20.7.2 Diagnostic Protocols for Preventive Management and Control: Systematic Screening Protocol
20.7.2.1 Step One: History
20.7.2.2 Step Two: Visual (Physical) Examination
20.7.2.3 Step Three: Wood's Lamp Examination
20.7.2.4 Step Four: Direct Examination of Fluorescing Hairs
20.7.2.5 Step Five: Fungal Cultures
20.7.2.6 Sample Collection and Preparation Technique
20.7.2.7 Animal Holding Time for Culture Results
20.7.2.8 Fungal Culture Processing, Pathogen Identification and Reporting Culture Results
20.7.2.9 The Pathogen Scoring System: Using Colony‐Forming Units to Aid in Management and Treatment Decisions
20.7.2.9.1 P‐1 Cats
20.7.2.9.2 P‐2 Cats
20.7.2.9.3 P‐3 Cats
20.7.2.9.4 Use of the P‐Scoring System
20.7.3 PCR Testing
20.8 Initial Risk Evaluation and Response
20.8.1 Isolation and Separation
20.9 Treatment
20.9.1 Topical Treatment
20.9.1.1 Lime Sulfur
20.9.1.1.1 Application of Lime Sulfur Dip
20.9.1.1.2 Clipping the Hair Coat Prior to Topical Treatment
20.9.2 Systemic Treatment
20.9.2.1 Itraconazole
20.9.2.2 Terbinafine
20.9.2.3 Fluconazole
20.9.2.4 Griseofulvin
20.9.2.5 Ketoconazole
20.9.2.6 Lufenuron
20.9.3 Verification of Cure
20.9.4 Housing of Animals Undergoing Treatment
20.9.4.1 Environmental Decontamination: Cleaning, Disinfection, and Preventative Planning
20.10 Outbreak Management and Response
20.11 Considerations for Adoption
20.12 Conclusion
References
21 Zoonosis
21.1 Introduction
21.2 General Guidelines for Zoonotic Disease Prevention. 21.2.1 The Shelter Environment
Box 21.1 Infection Control Resources
21.2.2 Personal Protective Equipment and Hand Hygiene
21.2.3 Animal Handling and Other General Precautions
Box 21.2 Hand Hygiene to Minimize Pathogen Transmission
Box 21.3 Guidelines for Proper Handwashing
21.3 Zoonotic Diseases
21.3.1 Infections Transmitted through Bites or Exposure to Saliva
21.3.1.1 Bite Wound Management
21.3.2 Infections Transmitted through Scratches, Close Physical, or Mucosal Contact
21.3.3 Infections Transmitted Via the Fecal–Oral Route
21.3.3.1 Prevention Measures
21.3.4 Infections Transmitted Via Contact with Urine or Genital Secretions
21.3.5 Infections Transmitted through Airborne Exposure
21.3.6 Vector‐Borne Pathogens
21.3.7 Anthroponoses
21.4 Adoption Considerations
21.4.1 Adopting to High‐Risk People
21.5 Consulting with the Department of Health
21.6 Conclusion
21.A Sample Animal Bite Investigation Form
References
22 Rabies
22.1 Overview of Rabies
22.1.1 Rabies Epidemiology
22.1.2 Prevalence and Distribution in the United States
22.2 Rabies Pathophysiology. 22.2.1 Transmission, Incubation Period and Disease Course
22.2.2 Clinical Signs
22.2.3 Diagnosis
22.3 Rabies Prevention and Control
22.3.1 Rabies Vaccination in Animals
22.3.1.1 Legal Requirements
22.3.1.2 Personnel Authorized to Administer Rabies Vaccinations
22.3.1.3 Frequency and Timing of Revaccination
22.3.1.4 Use of Rabies Virus Antibody Titers
22.3.1.5 Vaccination of Shelter Animals
22.3.2 Management of Potential Rabies Exposure
22.3.2.1 Rabies Exposure in Vaccinated Animals
22.3.2.2 Rabies Exposure in Unvaccinated Animals
22.3.2.3 Animals with Wounds of Unknown Origin
22.3.3 Rabies Prevention in Humans
22.4 Additional Considerations for Shelters and Shelter Animals
22.4.1 Rabies Considerations in Animal Translocation
22.4.2 Rabies Vaccination in Community (Feral and Free‐Roaming) Cats
22.4.3 Shelters as a Source of Public Education
22.5 Conclusion and Sources of Additional Information
References
Notes
23 Feline Leukemia and Feline Immunodeficiency Viruses
23.1 Introduction
23.1.1 Epidemiology and Course of the Disease. 23.1.1.1 Etiologic Agent and Susceptible Species
23.1.1.2 Zoonotic Potential
23.1.1.3 Prevalence
23.1.1.4 Morbidity, Mortality, and Prognosis
23.1.1.5 Mode of Transmission
23.1.1.6 Incubation Period and Persistence of Infection
23.1.1.7 Shedding
23.1.1.8 Clinical Signs
23.1.2 Diagnosis. 23.1.2.1 Diagnostic Tests
23.1.2.2 Testing in Shelters
23.2 Prevention and Control. 23.2.1 Housing
23.2.2 Vaccination. 23.2.2.1 FeLV Vaccination
23.2.2.2 FIV Vaccination
23.2.3 Disinfection (Environmental Control)
23.2.4 Treatment and Management
23.2.5 Euthanasia Guidelines
23.2.6 Client Education and Implications for Adoption
23.3 Conclusion
References
24 Exotic Companion Mammals (Ferrets, Rabbits, Guinea Pigs and Rodents)
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Ferrets. 24.2.1 Anatomy, Husbandry, Handling, and Routine Healthcare. 24.2.1.1 Terminology, Anatomy, and Physiology
24.2.1.2 Housing and Husbandry
24.2.1.3 Handling
24.2.1.4 Vaccination and Routine Healthcare
24.2.2 Infectious Diseases in Ferrets: Bacterial
24.2.2.1 Bacterial Gastroenteritis (Campylobacter, Escherichia coli, Salmonella)
24.2.2.2 Bacterial Pneumonia
24.2.2.3 Botulism
24.2.2.4 Helicobacter mustelae
24.2.2.5 Listeriosis
24.2.2.6 Mycobacteriosis
24.2.2.7 Mycoplasmosis
24.2.2.8 Proliferative Bowel Disease (Lawsonia intracellularis)
24.2.3 Infectious Diseases in Ferrets: Parasitic. 24.2.3.1 Coccidiosis
24.2.3.2 Cryptosporidiosis
24.2.3.3 Dirofilariasis
24.2.3.4 Ear Mites
24.2.3.5 Fleas
24.2.3.6 Giardiasis
24.2.3.7 Sarcoptic Mange
24.2.3.8 Toxoplasmosis
24.2.4 Infectious Diseases in Ferrets: Viral. 24.2.4.1 Aleutian Disease
24.2.4.2 Canine Distemper Virus
24.2.4.3 Coronavirus
24.2.4.4 Influenza
24.2.4.5 Rabies
24.2.4.6 Rotavirus
24.2.5 Infectious Diseases in Ferrets: Fungal. 24.2.5.1 Dermatophytosis
24.2.5.2 Other Fungal Diseases‐Blastomycosis, Coccidioidomycosis, Cryptococcosis
24.3 Rabbits. 24.3.1 Anatomy, Handling, Husbandry, and Routine Healthcare. 24.3.1.1 Terminology, Anatomy, and Physiology
24.3.1.2 Housing and Husbandry
24.3.1.3 Handling
24.3.1.4 Vaccination and Routine Healthcare
24.3.2 Infectious Diseases in Rabbits: Bacterial
24.3.2.1 Bacterial Enteritis (E. coli, C. piliforme, L. intracelullaris)
24.3.2.2 Bacterial Respiratory Disease (P. multocida, B. bronchiseptica, Pseudomonas, etc.)
24.3.3 Infectious Diseases in Rabbits: Parasitic. 24.3.3.1 Coccidiosis
24.3.3.2 Cryptosporidiosis
24.3.3.3 Ear Mites
24.3.3.4 Encephalitozoon cuniculi
24.3.3.5 Fleas/Ticks/Lice
24.3.3.6 Helminths
24.3.3.7 Mites
24.3.3.8 Treponema paraluiscuniculi
24.3.4 Infectious Diseases in Rabbits: Viral. 24.3.4.1 Myxomatosis
24.3.4.2 Rotavirus
24.3.4.3 Rabbit Hemorrhagic Disease Virus
24.3.4.4 Rabbit (Shope) Fibroma Virus and Rabbit (Shope) Papillomavirus
24.3.4.5 Rabies
24.3.4.6 Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV)
24.3.5 Infectious Diseases in Rabbits: Fungal. 24.3.5.1 Dermatophytosis
24.4 Guinea Pigs. 24.4.1 Anatomy, Husbandry, Handling, and Routine Healthcare. 24.4.1.1 Terminology, Anatomy, and Physiology
24.4.1.2 Housing and Husbandry
24.4.1.3 Handling and Routine Healthcare
24.4.2 Infectious Diseases of Guinea Pigs
24.4.2.1 Respiratory Disease. 24.4.2.1.1 Adenoviral Pneumonia
24.4.2.1.2 Bacterial Pneumonia
24.4.2.2 Gastrointestinal Disease. 24.4.2.2.1 Bacterial Enteritis
24.4.2.2.2 Gastrointestinal Parasitism
24.4.2.3 Dermatologic Disease. 24.4.2.3.1 Ectoparasitism
24.4.2.3.2 Dermatophytosis
24.4.2.4 Other Conditions. 24.4.2.4.1 Bacterial Conjunctivitis
24.4.2.4.2 Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis Virus (LCMV)
24.4.2.4.3 Cervical Lymphadenitis
24.5 Altricial Rodents (Rats, Mice, Hamsters, and Gerbils) 24.5.1 Anatomy, Husbandry, Handling, and Routine Healthcare. 24.5.1.1 Terminology, Anatomy, and Physiology
24.5.1.2 Housing and Husbandry
24.5.1.3 Handling
24.5.1.4 Routine Healthcare
24.5.2 Infectious Diseases of Concern in Rodents in Animal Shelters
24.5.2.1 Respiratory Disease. 24.5.2.1.1 Sendai Virus and Sialodacryoadenitis Virus
24.5.2.1.2 Murine Respiratory Mycoplasmosis (MRM)
24.5.2.1.3 Bacterial Pneumonia
24.5.2.2 Gastrointestinal Disease. 24.5.2.2.1 Bacterial Enteritis
24.5.2.2.2 Taenia taeniaeformis (Tapeworms)
24.5.2.3 Dermatologic Disease. 24.5.2.3.1 Dermatophytosis
24.5.2.3.2 Ectoparasites
24.5.2.3.3 Staphylococcal Dermatitis
24.6 Conclusion
References
Index
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