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1 Chapter 1Figure 1.1 Correlation between structure at 2800 km depth and other mantle d...Figure 1.2 Shown here are plots of Voigt V_S variations at spherical harmonic...Figure 1.3 Radial correlation functions computed for four recent global tomo...Figure 1.4 (A) Viscosity profiles used in our geodynamic models. For compari...Figure 1.5 Power spectra of four recent global V_S tomographic models. Becaus...Figure 1.6 Results from transdimensional, hierarchical, Bayesian inversions ...Figure 1.7 Divergence component of plate motions computed for 0, 100, and 20...

2 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 Approximate pressure and temperature capabilities of various defo...Figure 2.2 Summary of high‐pressure differential stress measurements on peri...Figure 2.3 Summary of high‐pressure differential stress measurement on CaSiOFigure 2.4 Summary of textures observed in ferropericlase (a) and (b), CaSiOFigure 2.5 Summary of the various textures types observed in post‐perovskite...Figure 2.6 Schematic of (a) interconnected weak layer and (b) load‐bearing f...Figure 2.7 Texture development during diamond anvil cell deformation of brid...

3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 Variations in P‐wave velocities for isotropic polycrystalli...Figure 3.2 Variations in S‐wave velocities for isotropic polycrystalli...Figure 3.3 Variations in P-wave (a) and S-wave (b) velocities of bridgmanite...Figure 3.4 Energy diagrams for multi‐electron states that arise from the 3d ...Figure 3.5 (a–c) Reanalysis of elastic moduli of ferropericlase (a), sound w...Figure 3.6 Exchange coefficients for Fe‐Mg exchange between bridgmanite and ...Figure 3.7 P-wave (a) and S-wave (b) velocities for different mineral phases...Figure 3.8 Relative contrasts between modeled P-wave (upper row) and S-wave ...Figure 3.9 Relative contrasts between modeled P-wave (upper row) and S-wave ...

4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Spectral power of heterogeneity in (a) temperature, (b) shear wav...Figure 4.2 (a) Root‐mean‐square profiles of relative variations in v_s for (m...Figure 4.3 A selection of 1‐D Q models derived from seismic observations: Th...Figure 4.4 (a) Change in P‐wave velocity due to the anelastic correctio...Figure 4.5 Example of the effect of the anelastic correction on the temperat...Figure 4.6 Same as Figure 4.2b: (a) for the extreme case with α = 0.3 a...

5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Isotopic compositions of OIBs with robust EM1, EM2, HIMU, and FOZ...Figure 5.2 Minor element compositions of olivine in OIBs. (a) Fo content ver...Figure 5.3 Major element compositions of basalts from the Cook–Austral Islan...Figure 5.4 Published Mg‐Ca‐Zn isotopic data for some OIBs and continental ba...Figure 5.5 Volatile to lithophile element ratios in OIBs with robust EM1, EM...

6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Pyroxenite and peridotite solidus temperatures determined experim...Figure 6.2 Experimental melt fractions as functions of temperature for pyrox...Figure 6.3 Effect of the potential temperature (T_P) and the final pressure o...Figure 6.4 (a–b) Partition coefficient of Mn (a) and Fe (b) between minerals...Figure 6.5 (a) Solidus of nominally anhydrous (NA) peridotite, recycled ocea...Figure 6.6 Major element oxides (wt.%) vs. Mg# for lavas (gray circles), cum...Figure 6.7 Calculated average proportions of pyroxenite in the source of the...Figure 6.8 Calculated average proportions of G2 using the simple melting mod...Figure 6.9 (a) Experimentally produced peridotite partial melts without H₂O,...

7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Examples of inclusions in super‐deep diamonds. Left: Iridescent f...Figure 7.2 Hydrous ringwoodite inclusion infrared absorption spectrum, with ...Figure 7.3 Example of a CLIPPIR diamond with metallic inclusions. This inclu...Figure 7.4 Relationship of increasing ferric iron proportion (Fe³⁺/∑Fe) in g...Figure 7.5 Three mechanisms of melt/fluid development related to super‐deep ...

8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Ray paths of seismic phases, PdP and SdS, sampling D" that are di...Figure 8.2 Places with D" detections in different studies following the maps...Figure 8.3 Examples of PdP observations in different regions showing amplitu...Figure 8.4 Examples of the reflection coefficients for P waves (R_PP) and S w...Figure 8.5 Vespagrams (slowness vs. time) for selected events sampling the D...Figure 8.6 top) Observations from this study (gray circles for observations, ...Figure 8.7 Ray paths of seismic phases for detection of ULVZs referred to in...Figure 8.8 (a–c) Examples of waves used for the detection of a ULVZ (black l...Figure 8.9 Best‐fitting mineral assemblages results for the ULVZ case studie...Figure 8.10 Corner plot showing error correlation ellipses (1σ) from the bes...Figure 8.11 Schematic showing possible interactions between slabs, plumes, u...

9 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Typical long‐wavelength (up to spherical harmonic degree 12) velo...Figure 9.2 Overview of global (a–b) CMB topography models and (c) lowermost ...Figure 9.3 Properties of global CMB topography and density models shown in F...Figure 9.4 Cross‐model correlation for global models included in Table 9.1 o...Figure 9.5 Summary models of lowermost mantle density structure (top two row...Figure 9.6 Comparison between seismic constraints and geodynamic predictions...

10 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 Velocity deviation for Pn from the mean (v_P = 8.159 km/s) in the...Figure 10.2 Azimuthal anisotropy of the upper mantle. (a) Non‐zero SKS split...Figure 10.3 Azimuth, ϕ, dependent anisotropy of Rayleigh‐wave phase vel...Figure 10.4 Angular orientational misfit, Δα, in the oceanic plate regi...Figure 10.5 (a) Angular orientational misfit, Δα, underneath the Pacifi...Figure 10.6 Angular misfit (minimum with depth) between flow model predictio...

11 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 World map showing the distribution of major plate boundaries. Re...Figure 11.2 Map views of isotropic V_p and its azimuthal anisotropy of the Ja...Figure 11.3 V_P and V_S azimuthal‐anisotropy tomography along three planes in ...Figure 11.4 Map views of P‐wave azimuthal‐anisotropy tomography beneat...Figure 11.5 Map views of P‐wave azimuthal‐anisotropy tomography at six...Figure 11.6 Three‐dimensional anisotropy model for Southern California at de...Figure 11.7 A sketch showing the deformation and anisotropy in subduction zo...

12 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 (a) Density difference between MORB, Harzburgite and pyrolite fr...Figure 12.2 Numerical modeling experiments showing the dynamics of a sinking...Figure 12.3 Snapshots of temperature fields (left column) and the correspond...Figure 12.4 Snapshots from geodynamic experiments showing the segregation of...Figure 12.5 Snapshots of compositional field showing the accumulation of sub...Figure 12.6 (a) A snapshot of temperature field with subducted oceanic crust...Figure 12.7 (a–c) Zoomed‐in view near the cusp of a thermochemical pile show...Figure 12.8 Snapshot of laboratory (a–b) and numerical modeling experiments ...Figure 12.9 A variety of behaviors of thermochemical plumes that entrain CDM...Figure 12.10 Cartoons showing the cycling of subducted oceanic crust in the ...

13 Chapter 13Figure 13.1 (a–d) Maps show shear‐wave radial anisotropic parameter ξ a...Figure 13.2 (a) Ray paths for general body wave (pairs) used to constrain lo...Figure 13.3 Showing the general steps in forward modeling from a flow model ...Figure 13.4 (a) Geodynamical setup of forward calculation, taken from Figure...Figure 13.5 Shear‐wave splitting results for the ScS phase for path C (Table...Figure 13.6 Shear‐wave splitting results for the path B (Table 13.1) and mod...Figure 13.7 Shear‐wave splitting results for the path B (Table 13.1) and mod...Figure 13.8 Difference in splitting intensity between SKS and SKKS, ΔSI for ...

14 Chapter 14Figure 14.1 Vertical cross‐sections of shear velocity variations (shown up t...Figure 14.2 Perturbations of temperature in Kelvin (left) and percent shear ...Figure 14.3 (a) Ray paths of S waves (solid lines) and SKS waves (dashed lin...Figure 14.4 Tomographic images of plume R1c by finite‐frequency inversion of...Figure 14.5 Theoretical profiles of shear velocity as a function of depth fo...Figure 14.6 SEM waveforms for PREM (black) and R1c (red) for plume model R1c...

15 Chapter 15Figure 15.1 Processes producing dynamic topography and mechanisms causing ev...Figure 15.2 Synthetic dynamic topography fields for simple convection simula...Figure 15.3 Schematic cartoon of lower mantle flow and associated boundary d...Figure 15.4 Results of present‐day instantaneous flow calculations from Hage...Figure 15.5 Estimates of present‐day residual topography. All maps are air‐l...Figure 15.6 Rates of air‐loaded dynamic topography change from simple convec...Figure 15.7 Geological observations recording a history of evolving relative...

16 Chapter 16Figure 16.1 The dynamic exchanges from the core to atmosphere. (a) The inter...Figure 16.2 The expression of LIPs on the Earth’s surface with key examples ...Figure 16.3 (a) Phanerozoic timescale with greenhouse (hot) versus icehouse ...Figure 16.4 (a) The location of 32 Phanerozoic large igneous provinces (LIPs...Figure 16.5 (a) Seismic tomographic s10mean model (δVS%) at 2800 km depth (D...Figure 16.6 (a) Schematic representations of present-day sinking slabs (base...Figure 16.7 (a) Cretaceous (Aptian-Albian) paleomagnetic reconstruction (~11...Figure 16.8 (a) Reconstruction of the Northeast Atlantic at 55 ± 2 Ma with t...Figure 16.9 Phanerozoic timescale with greenhouse (hot) versus icehouse (col...Figure 16.10 Reconstructed tropical belts at (a) 30 Ma; (b) 60 Ma; and (c) 3...Figure 16.11 (a) End‐Permian paleomagnetic reconstruction (252 Ma) and occur...Figure 16.12 (a) Phanerozoic timescale with greenhouse (hot) versus icehouse...

17 Chapter 17Figure 17.1 Different scenarios for the consequences of the fractional cryst...Figure 17.2 Boundary separating the regime of early onset of convection (abo...Figure 17.3 Left column: Volumetric composition of the different silicate re...Figure 17.4 Formation of a Caloris‐sized basin on Mercury. Each panel indica...Figure 17.5 (a) Map of the radial component of Mercury’s magnetic field at 3...Figure 17.6 Possible evolution of the (a) upper mantle temperature (i.e., th...