Оглавление
Группа авторов. Sarcopenia
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
Sarcopenia
List of Contributors
Preface
CHAPTER 1 Definitions of Sarcopenia
SARCOPENIA: BIRTH AND FIRST STEPS
GROWTH AND ADOLESCENCE OF SARCOPENIA
European Working Group on Sarcopenia in Older People and Asian Working Group on Sarcopenia
European Society for Clinical Nutrition and Metabolism Special Interest Groups
Society for Sarcopenia, Cachexia and Wasting Disorders (SSCWD)
International Working Group on Sarcopenia (IWGS)
Foundation for the National Institutes of Health
MATURITY OF SARCOPENIA: RECENT DEFINITIONS
NEW PLAYERS: BONE, FAT, AND MUSCLE
THE FRONTIERS: FRAILTY, CACHEXIA, MALNUTRITION
THE RESEARCH ARENA
SUMMARY
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 2 Epidemiology of Muscle Mass Loss with Age
INTRODUCTION
MUSCLE MASS DIFFERENCES AMONG AGE GROUPS
CHANGE IN MUSCLE MASS WITH AGING
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 3 The Role of Mitochondria in Age‐Related Sarcopenia
MUSCLES TRANSFORM CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO MECHANICAL ENERGY
EVIDENCE THAT MITOCHONDRIAL FUNCTION DECLINES WITH AGING AND ITS CONSEQUENCES ON MUSCLE HEALTH AND FUNCTION
CAUSES OF THE DECLINE OF MITOCHONDRIAL MASS AND OXIDATIVE CAPACITY IN AGING SKELETAL MUSCLE
Decline of physical activity with aging
Oxidative stress
Anabolic resistance
Accumulation of somatic mutations in mitochondrial and nuclear DNA
Fission, fusion, and mitochondrial recycling
Apoptosis
Mitochondrial proteostasis mechanisms
ARE AGE‐RELATED CHANGES IN MITOCHONDRIAL FUNCTION AT THE ROOT OF SARCOPENIA?
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 4 Motor Unit Remodeling
OVERVIEW OF THE NEUROMUSCULAR SYSTEM
AGE‐RELATED MU REMODELING. Loss of MUs
LOSS OF MUSCLE FIBERS
REDUCED FIRING CAPACITY OF MUs
MECHANISMS OF MU REMODELING. Role of resistance and endurance exercise in preserving MU function
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 5 Nutrition, Protein Turnover and Muscle Mass
INTRODUCTION
EVIDENCES FOR A ROLE FOR NUTRITION IN SARCOPENIA “Anabolic resistance” of skeletal muscle to nutrition in older persons
What is the basis of protein requirement during aging?
How to improve protein retention in older persons: beyond protein quantity? What is the response to increasing protein intakes?
Is there an effect of the protein source?
Optimizing protein digestion rate to improve amino acid availability?
Is there a specific daily protein feeding pattern?
Improvement of protein retention by amino acids?
ANABOLIC RESPONSE TO PHYSICAL EXERCISE IN OLDER PERSONS
COMBINATION OF NUTRITIONAL AND TRAINING STRATEGIES
CONCLUDING REMARKS AND FUTURE DIRECTION
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 6 Recognizing Persons at Risk for Sarcopenia
SARC‐F
OTHER SCREENING TESTS FOR SARCOPENIA
CONCLUSION
DISCLOSURES
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 7 Adverse Outcomes and Functional Consequences of Sarcopenia
INTRODUCTION
MORTALITY
MOBILITY LIMITATIONS
FALLS AND FRACTURES
QUALITY OF LIFE
METABOLIC CONSEQUENCES
SECONDARY SARCOPENIA
CONTROVERSIES
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 8 A Lifecourse Approach to Sarcopenia
INTRODUCTION
A LIFECOURSE APPROACH
USE OF COHORT STUDIES ACROSS THE LIFECOURSE
Birth cohort studies
Other lifecourse cohorts
LIFECOURSE CONSEQUENCES OF SARCOPENIA
All‐cause mortality rates
Disability
Quality of life
Long‐term conditions and hospitalization
LIFECOURSE DETERMINANTS OF SARCOPENIA
Early growth and nutrition
Midlife risk factors
CELLULAR AND MOLECULAR MECHANISMS
Fiber number
Epigenetics and microRNAs
Mitochondrial function
Extracellular matrix
CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 9 Acute Sarcopenia
DEFINITION
EPIDEMIOLOGY
Acute sarcopenia in medical units
Acute sarcopenia in surgical units
Acute sarcopenia in intensive care
Acute sarcopenia in rehabilitation and post‐acute care
PATHOGENESIS
Immobilization
Imbalance between protein synthesis and degradation
Inflammation
Endocrine stress responses
Nutritional deficits
OUTCOMES. Medical wards
Surgical wards
Intensive care
TREATMENT
Physical exercise
Nutritional intervention
Neuromuscular electrical stimulation
Combined interventions
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 10 Sarcopenia, Frailty, and Intrinsic Capacity
INTRODUCING THE FRAILTY CONCEPT
THE PHYSICAL PHENOTYPE ACCORDING TO FRIED AND THE DEFICIT MODEL ACCORDING TO ROCKWOOD
SARCOPENIA AND FRAILTY – OVERLAP AND DIFFERENCES
THE FUTURE RELEVANCE OF FRAILTY
INTRINSIC CAPACITY
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 11 Osteosarcopenia
INTRODUCTION
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY. Genetics
Mechanical
Metabolic
Muscle and bone interactions
EPIDEMIOLOGY. Prevalence
Clinical outcomes
CLINICAL ASSESSMENT
History
Physical assessments
Investigations
TREATMENTS. Non‐pharmacological
Pharmacological
SUMMARY
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 12 Sarcopenic Obesity
INTRODUCTION
DEFINITION OF SARCOPENIC OBESITY
PATHOGENESIS OF SO
CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS
TREATMENT
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 13 Sarcopenia and Cognitive Impairment
INTRODUCTION
AGING AND COGNITIVE DECLINES
PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DECLINES
SARCOPENIA AND COGNITIVE IMPAIRMENT
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 14 Sarcopenia and Other Chronic Organ Diseases
CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE
CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE
CHRONIC HEART FAILURE
DIABETES MELLITUS
RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS (RA)
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 15 Imaging of Skeletal Muscle
INTRODUCTION
DUAL X‐RAY ABSORPTIOMETRY
COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY
MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING
POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 16 Measurements of Muscle Mass: Equations and Cut‐off Points
INTRODUCTION
ANTHROPOMETRY – METHOD DESCRIPTION
ANTHROPOMETRY – CUT‐OFF POINTS IN SARCOPENIA RESEARCH
BIOELECTRICAL IMPEDANCE – METHOD DESCRIPTION
BIOELECTRICAL IMPEDANCE – CUT‐OFF POINTS IN SARCOPENIA RESEARCH
DXA – METHOD DESCRIPTION
DXA – CUT‐OFF POINTS IN SARCOPENIA RESEARCH
CT AND MRI – METHOD DESCRIPTION
CT AND MRI – CUT‐OFF POINTS IN SARCOPENIA RESEARCH
EMERGING METHODS
OVERVIEW OF METHODS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 17 Deuterated Creatine Dilution to Assess Muscle Mass (D3‐Cr Muscle Mass) in Humans: Methods, Early Results, and Future Directions
INTRODUCTION
METHODS AND OPERATIONAL APPROACH. Overview of Dilution Method
Reproducibility of the D3‐Cr dilution measure
Implementation of the D3‐Cr dilution method in research settings
Mitigating concerns about safety of the D3‐Cr dose
Implementing the Timed Dose and Fasting Morning Urine Collection
CONSIDERATION OF BODY SIZE IN ANALYSIS OF MUSCLE MASS
SUMMARY OF OBSERVATIONAL HUMAN STUDIES THAT HAVE IMPLEMENTED THE D3‐Cr DILUTION METHOD
NEXT STEPS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 18 Measurement of Muscle Strength and Power
INTRODUCTION
TERMINOLOGY. Muscular activity
Quantification of muscular action
Strength and power
METHODS OF MEASUREMENT
Methods used for research purposes. Computerized pneumatic strength training equipment
Nottingham power rig
STS transfer
Vertical jump
Methods for clinical routine
Handgrip strength
Chair rise
Stair climbing
Inertial measurement unit–based power measurements
Calculation of sensor‐based peak power
Applications of sensor‐based (peak) power measurements
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 19 Measurements of Physical Performance
INTRODUCTION
WHAT INFORMATION IS PROVIDED TO A CLINICIAN WHEN ADOPTING PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE MEASURES?
SARCOPENIA AND PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE
MEASURES OF PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE. The short physical performance battery (SPPB)
Chair stand test
Timed up‐and‐go test
Stair climb power test
Gait speed tests
Self‐reported functional limitation assessment
The role of technology
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 20 Biomarkers for Physical Frailty and Sarcopenia: A “Two‐Body Problem”
INTRODUCTION
BIOMARKERS FOR PHYSICAL FRAILTY AND SARCOPENIA: WHERE DO WE STAND?
MULTI‐MARKER RESEARCH STRATEGIES: MOVING THE FIELD FORWARD
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 21 Quality of Life and Sarcopenia
INTRODUCTION
LITERATURE REVIEW OF QOL AND SARCOPENIA
Age‐related sarcopenia and quality of life
Disease‐related sarcopenia and quality of life
Discussion of results of the review
THE SARQOL QUESTIONNAIRE
Development of the SarQoL questionnaire
Psychometric properties
Applicability with different diagnostic criteria
Future perspectives
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 22 Exercise Interventions to Prevent and Improve Sarcopenia
INTRODUCTION
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Sedentary behavior
Physical activity
Exercise
BENEFITS OF PA AND AGING
Response to exercise
Optimization of body composition
Decreases the risk of developing many chronic diseases
Treatment of chronic diseases
Decreases falls and injuries
Decreases disability
Improves psychological health
Mental and social health
Increases life expectancy
Improves quality of life (QOL)
TYPES OF EXERCISE. Aerobic exercise
High‐intensity interval training (HIIT)
Resistance exercise
Power training
Flexibility exercises
Balance training
Multicomponent physical exercise (MPE)
Other types of exercise
EXERCISE INTERVENTIONS AND SARCOPENIA. General recommendations
Lifestyle modifications
Aerobic exercise
Resistance exercise (RE)
Flexibility
Balance
Safety
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 23 Nutritional Approaches to Treat Sarcopenia
INTRODUCTION – SARCOPENIA ETIOLOGIES AND EFFECT OF NUTRITIONAL INTERVENTION
DIETARY PROTEIN INTAKE AND MUSCLE ANABOLISM
Current dietary protein recommendations
Is there a need for higher protein recommendation in older adults?
What is the evidence base for a higher protein recommendation?
Whole diet approaches – observational and interventional studies
Animal or vegetable protein sources
Protein supplementation studies – whole protein approach
Protein supplementation studies – fast and slow proteins, essential amino acids, leucine, hydroxyl methylbutyrate
Do all older than 65 years benefit from higher protein intake?
Absolute or proportional protein intake recommendations?
COMBINING PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTATION WITH EXERCISE
What is the evidence base for combining exercise and protein supplementation?
TIMING OF PROTEIN CONSUMPTION
Distribution of protein intake over the day
Timing of protein ingestion with exercise
OTHER NUTRITIONAL APPROACHES. Vitamin D and sarcopenia
What is the evidence base for vitamin D recommendations?
Essential fatty acids
Dietary patterns
What is the evidence base for plant‐based diets and muscle fitness?
STATE OF THE ART
FUTURE PERSPECTIVES
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 24 Beta‐hydroxy‐beta‐methylbutyrate (HMB) and Sarcopenia
INTRODUCTION
BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY OF HMB ON MUSCLE CELLS
HMB IN THE DAILY DIET
HMB INTERVENTION STUDIES IN OLDER ADULTS AND IN DISEASE CONDITIONS
HMB in bed rest subjects
HMB in acute care patients
HMB in post‐acute patients
HMB in community older people
HMB WITH EXERCISE
EFFICACY OF HMB IN ATHLETES
SAFETY OF HMB
HMB IN THE EUROPEAN SOCIETY FOR CLINICAL NUTRITION AND METABOLISM GUIDELINE
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 25 The Future of Drug Treatments
INTRODUCTION
CARDIOVASCULAR DRUGS. Angiotensin II converting enzyme inhibitors
Clinical experience
Mechanism of action
Statins
Clinical experience
Mechanism of action
HORMONE REPLACEMENT. Testosterone
Clinical experience
Mechanism of action
Estrogens and tibolone
Clinical experience
Mechanism of action
Dehydroepiandrosterone
Clinical experience
Mechanism of action
Growth hormone
Clinical experience
Mechanism of action
Ghrelin
Clinical experience
Mechanism of action
METABOLIC AGENTS. Creatine
Clinical experience
Mechanism of action
Vitamin D
Clinical experience
Mechanism of action
Β‐HYDROXY Β‐METHYLBUTYRATE
Clinical experience
Mechanism of action
OTHER POSSIBLE PHARMACOLOGIC APPROACHES. Selective androgen receptor modulators
Phytoestrogen supplementation and isoflavones
Melanocortin‐4 receptor antagonists
Ornithine alpha‐ketoglutarate
Leptin
Myostatin inhibition
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
Lessons From the Testosterone Trials
CHAPTER 26 Sarcopenia: Is It Preventable?
INTRODUCTION
AGE‐RELATED CHANGES IN BODY COMPOSITION
PREVALENCE OF SARCOPENIA
PREVENTION
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Quaternary
PREVENTION STRATEGY
PHYSICAL EXERCISE
NUTRITIONAL BASICS. Protein
Vitamin D
Antioxidants
Minerals
Diets
QUATERNARY PREVENTION: WARNING AGAINST NON‐EVIDENCE‐BASED INTERVENTIONS
REFERENCES
27 Financial Impact of Sarcopenia
INTRODUCTION
DATA FROM COHORT STUDIES: AGE‐ASSOCIATED SARCOPENIA IN COMMUNITY‐DWELLING OLD
RETROSPECTIVE DATA FROM SURGICAL SETTINGS ON THE FINANCIAL IMPACT OF LOW MUSCLE MASS
FINANCIAL IMPACT OF LOW SKELETAL MUSCLE MASS AND STRENGTH – SARCOPENIA – IN A GENERAL HOSPITAL SETTING
CRITICAL DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 28 Sarcopenia Management for Clinicians
MANAGEMENT OF SARCOPENIA IN CLINICAL PRACTICE
IDENTIFYING REVERSIBLE FACTORS
Physical activity
Nutrition
Other interventions
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
Index
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