Читать книгу Iceland Within the Northern Atlantic, Volume 2 - Группа авторов - Страница 3

1 IntroductionFigure I.1. Iceland from Space (document Geographical Institute of Iceland/Landm...Figure I.2. (A) Icelandic stamp illustrating the discovery of Iceland by Irish m...Figure I.3. Traditional sheepfolds in southern Iceland with the volcano Hekla in...Figure I.4. (A) The Þingvellir graben, seen from an airplane (Þingvellir Nationa...Figure I.5. (A) The Hekla volcano (Brigitte Van Vliet-Lanoë©) and (B) its cartog...Figure I.6. Typical landscape of ancient basalts on the eastern coast of Iceland...Figure I.7. The eruption of the Eyjafjallajökull in 2010: its jökulhlaup (Reykja...Figure I.8. Sheep disturbed by the ash from the eruption (Flickr©)Figure I.9. Digital terrain model of Vatnajökull (black line: current cap bounda...Figure I.10. (A and B) Views of the Bárðarbunga caldera obliterated by ice durin...Figure I.11. Rim of the northern caldera of Grìmsvötn (Ragnar Sigurdsson©)Figure I.12. The Grìmsvötn volcano. (A) Initiation of the northward flow associa...Figure I.13. (A) The jökulhlaups of the Skafta River from the Grimsvötn in 1996 ...Figure I.14. (A) Fissural eruption of Krafla in 1980, along fractures arranged e...Figure I.15. Eruption of Krafla in 1980: hornitos on fractures and lava flows in...Figure I.16. (A) The submarine ridges of Kolbeinsey and (B) of Reykjanes (multib...Figure I.17. Trace of the Réttarnes seismic fault (1294 or 1732) in the Rangavel...Figure I.18. Destruction caused during the earthquakes of June 2000 in Bitra: (A...Figure I.19. Successive phases of an explosion of the Strokkur geyser, Geysir ge...Figure I.20. The Hofsjökull. Document made from radar images (CNES©). The calder...Figure I.21. (A) The Kerlingarfjöll surrounded by its glacial desert. (B) Perche...Figure I.22. A subglacial tabular volcano: the Herðubreið, north of Vatnajökull,...Figure I.23. Jökulsá á Kreppa north of Vatnajökull with hyaloclastite or tindar ...Figure I.24. A key Icelandic resource: water. (A) Bruarjökull outlet (the glacie...

2 Chapter 1Figure 1.1. Distribution of recent Icelandic volcanism (modified from Þórðarson ...Figure 1.2. Icelandic magma series. Simplified diagram (modified from Jakobsson ...Figure 1.3. Evolution of major elements (% oxides) as a function of MgO in young...Figure 1.4. Sr-Nd isotopic compositions of recent Icelandic basalts and associat...Figure 1.5. The Baula rhyolitic batholith (3 My old) at the entrance to the Snæf...Figure 1.6. Geochemical comparison of tholeiitic basalts (tholeiites), alkaline ...Figure 1.7. Evolution of the average rare-earth composition of recent magnesian ...Figure 1.8. Compared isotopic compositions (Pb, Hf, Nd) of Icelandic and North A...Figure 1.9. Lead isotopic compositions of Icelandic basaltsFigure 1.10. Examples of Icelandic shield volcanoesFigure 1.11. Rhyolitic volcano (on the right; diameter 250 m) with dome-like mor...Figure 1.12. Large Icelandic fissural eruptions. (A) Lakagígar fissure, 1783–178...Figure 1.13. Map of the fissural eruptions of the Eldgjá and Laki (Southeast Neo...Figure 1.14. (A) Askja S fissural eruption, 11–10.8 ky, (modified from Sigurgeir...Figure 1.15. Examples of postglacial basaltic flows. (A) Southwest of Lake Hagon...Figure 1.16. Morphology of fluid basaltic flows. (A) Ropy lava surface (“Mývatn ...Figure 1.17. Morphology and post-eruptive evolution of the Dimmuborgir lava lake...Figure 1.18. Morphology of viscous rhyolitic (obsidian) lava of aa type. Landman...Figure 1.19. Vesicles and lava flows. (A) Pipe vesicles at the base of a fluid l...Figure 1.20. Examples of lava flowsFigure 1.21. Examples of pillow lavas. (A) Pillow lavas included within hyalocla...Figure 1.22. Cypressoid hydromagmatic plumes, loaded with black hydrated ashes, ...Figure 1.23. Eruptions of the Grímsvötn volcano. (A) Melting cauldron. (B) Melti...Figure 1.24. Examples of phreatomagmatic deposits. (A) Hverfjall tuff cone (Mýva...Figure 1.25. Examples of emplacement of phreatomagmatic formationsFigure 1.26. The 1973 Eldfell eruptionFigure 1.27. Extension of Vedde tephra in the North Atlantic (stars) and adjacen...Figure 1.28. Examples of rhyolitic deposits. (A) Subaerial pumice deposit (Hekla...Figure 1.29. Examples of tephras. (A) Spreading of fine ash from the Eyjafjallaj...Figure 1.30. Eruption of Eyjafjallajökull in April 2010. (A) Eruptive plume of t...Figure 1.31. Evolution of the lake level in the Grímsvötn caldera between 1930 a...Figure 1.32. Some effects of jökulhlaupsFigure 1.33. Examples of jökulhlaup-related erosionFigure 1.34. Examples of jökulhlaups-related sedimentary depositsFigure 1.35. Map of the extension of postglacial jökulhlaups (maximum flood infl...Figure 1.36. Traces of soil erosion (highlighted by vegetation) induced by jökul...Figure 1.37. (A) Deflation by north wind overflowing the sea, in the extension o...Figure 1.38. Main Late glacial and Early Holocene tephras in relation to jökulhl...Figure 1.39. Interstratified rhyolitic and basaltic tephras (A) in the Vopnafjör...Figure 1.40. Examples of Icelandic loess deposits and their erosionFigure 1.41. Examples of Icelandic dunes. (A) Vegetated dunes (Grímsstaðir). (B)...

3 Chapter 2Figure 2.1. Sub-lacustrine bedded hyaloclastites of the last glacial episode, Sn...Figure 2.2. Hyaloclastite facies. (A) Unoxidized hyaloclastite facies (Kleifarva...Figure 2.3. Examples of tuya-type recent subglacial volcanoesFigure 2.4. Examples of steeply sloping tuyas. (A) Diagram of a tuya with subgla...Figure 2.5. Hyaloclastite ridges. (A) To the immediate north of Vatnajökull, abo...Figure 2.6. Formation of fissural rift volcanoes during an interglacial period (...Figure 2.7. Structuration of a hyaloclastite ridge (Kleifarvatn). (A) Interpreta...Figure 2.8. Facies of laminated hyaloclastites at the edge of ice sheets. (A, B)...Figure 2.9. Comparative volumes of volcanic emissions during the end of deglacia...Figure 2.10. Principle of the unspiked K-Ar method. Two isotopes of argon are me...Figure 2.11. Examples of age spectra and isochron diagramFigure 2.12. Example of probability diagrams (continuous red curve) of anorthocl...Figure 2.13. Isochron diagram showing in gray the xenocrysts that plot off the i...Figure 2.14. Location map of dated samples (modified from Guillou et al. 2010)Figure 2.15. Examples of dated subglacial lava flows (A–D) and subaerial lava fl...Figure 2.16. Plot of the eruption time intervals based on radiometric ages on th...Figure 2.17. Location map of dated rhyolitic samples. The yellow stars refer to ...Figure 2.18. Position of the 24 dated Icelandic rhyolites on Lisiecki and Raymo’...

4 Chapter 3Figure 3.1. Arctic paleogeography in the final Lower Miocene (modified from Jako...Figure 3.2. Thermal and eustatic events leading to the onset of glaciation (modi...Figure 3.3(a). Location of sites. In red: current North Atlantic Deep Water (NAD...Figure 3.3(b). Tectonic and hydrological evolution of the North Atlantic since t...Figure 3.4. Chronology of the onset of ice-rafted debris in the North Atlantic. ...Figure 3.5. Evolution of peri-Atlantic freezing and thermohaline circulation in ...Figure 3.6. Two hypotheses of glaciation during the Weichselian Pleniglacial. (A...Figure 3.7. Relationships between high present precipitation (gray), position of...Figure 3.8. Ice streams and ice shelvesFigure 3.9. Proglacial reaction flexural bulge: the deformation propagates in fr...Figure 3.10. Apparent sea-level rise curve for the west coast of Iceland (comple...Figure 3.11. (A) Indications of moderate hydrothermal activity in Holocene sedim...Figure 3.12. Correlation of glacial deposits identified in Icelandic stratigraph...Figure 3.13. Evolution of Icelandic glaciations during the Plio-Pleistocene. Com...Figure 3.14. Tjörnes glacial and glaciomarine deposits (source of the log: Verho...Figure 3.15. Climate change, recorded by δ180 in sea cores (Liesecki and Raymo 2...Figure 3.16(a). Recording of the MPT within the deposits of the Múlalón paleolak...Figure 3.16(b). Recording of the MPT within the deposits of the Múlalón paleolak...Figure 3.17. Paleoclimatic record of the last 400 ky in Vostok, Antarctica (modi...Figure 3.18. Iceland during the Middle Saalian and Eemian. (A) Location of sites...Figure 3.19. Eemian depositsFigure 3.20. Reconstructed apparent eustatic curve in Southern Iceland from Rang...Figure 3.21. Modalities of the extension of the Icelandic ice sheet based on the...Figure 3.22. Recording of ice sheet behavior, subglacial and subaerial eruptive ...Figure 3.23. Extension of the ice cap during the LGMFigure 3.24. Ice rivers. Terminal moraine arcs in the Eyjafjörður (Greinivík, Sp...Figure 3.25. Altitude of the tuyas (section from Vatnajökull to Öxarfjodur and L...Figure 3.26. Sedimentary facies linked to deglaciationFigure 3.27. Chronology of deglaciation in Iceland between 12 and 8 ky (Van Vlie...Figure 3.28. Holocene evolution of glaciers in the North Atlantic area. Note the...Figure 3.29. Current rock glacier and glacier morphologiesFigure 3.30. Examples of ancient deposits. (A) Paleotuya truncated by very old t...Figure 3.31. Average annual rain and temperatures for the period 1931–1960. (1) ...Figure 3.32. (A) Map of North Atlantic marine currents. Fine black arrows: cold ...Figure 3.33. Holocene history of the Icelandic sea ice. (A) Holocene extension o...Figure 3.34. Maximum extension of sea ice in April 1917. It reached Reykjavík in...Figure 3.35. Evolution of Icelandic habitatFigure 3.36. Icelandic flora. (A) Viviparous sheep’s fescue. (B) Botrychium fern...Figure 3.37. Quasi-natural plant associations in IcelandFigure 3.38. Map of current permafrost. Dark blue: continuous; light blue: disco...Figure 3.39. Glacial and periglacial figures associated with permafrostFigure 3.40. Periglacial soils. (A, B) Thufurs (Þeistareykir and Krafla volcanoe...Figure 3.41. (A, B) Solifluction tongues. (C) Small frost-sorted soils. Shallow ...Figure 3.42. Soil erosion map, simplified from the CORINE database (modified fro...

5 ConclusionFigure C.1. Geological map of Iceland, originally at 1/600 000e, H.J Jóhannesson...