Читать книгу Fractures in the Horse - Группа авторов - Страница 139

1 1 Bushberg, J.T., Seibert, J.A., Leidholdt, E.M., and Boone, J.M. (2012). The Essential Physics of Medical Imaging, 3e. Philadelphia, USA: Lippincott, William and Wilkins.

2 2 Prokop, M. and Schaefer‐Prokop, C.M. (1997). Digital image processing. Eur. Radiol. 7 (Suppl 3): 73–82.

3 3 Hornof, W.J. and O'Brien, T.R. (1980). Radiographic evaluation of the palmar aspect of the equine metacarpal condyles: a new projection. Vet. Radiol. 21: 161–167.

4 4 Pilsworth, R.C., Hopes, R., and Greet, T.R. (1988). A flexed dorso‐palmar projection of the equine fetlock in demonstrating lesions of the distal third metacarpus. Vet. Rec. 122: 332–333.

5 5 McLear, R.C., Handmaker, H., Schmidt, W. et al. (2004). “Uberschwinger” or “rebound effect” artifact in computed radiographic imaging of metallic implants in veterinary medicine. Vet. Radiol. Ultrasound. 45: 266.

6 6 Drost, W.T., Reese, D.J., and Hornof, W.J. (2008). Digital radiography artefacts. Vet. Radiol. Ultrasound. 49: S48–S56.

7 7 Grandage, J. (1976). Interpretation of bone radiographs: some hazards for the unwary. Aust. Vet J. 52: 305–311.

8 8 Frietman, S., van Proosdij, R., ter Braake, F., and de Heer, N. (2020). A detailed radiographic description of the nutrient foramen of the dorsal cortex of the proximal phalanx in horses. Equine Vet. Educ. 32: 72–77.

9 9 Butler, J.A., Colles, C.M., Dyson, S.J. et al. (2017). Clinical Radiology of the Horse, 4e, 449–530. Chichester, UK: Wiley.

10 10 Ramirez, O., Jorgensen, J.S., and Thrall, D.E. (1998). Imaging basilar skull fractures in the horse: a review. Vet. Radiol. Ultrasound. 39: 391–395.

11 11 Derungs, S., Fuerst, A., Haas, C. et al. (2001). Fissure fractures of the radius and tibia in 23 horses: a retrospective study. Equine Vet. Educ. 13: 313–318.

12 12 Mandalia, V., Fogg, A.J.B., Chari, R. et al. (2005). Bone bruising of the knee. Clin. Radiol. 60: 627–636.

13 13 Stover, S.M. (2017). Nomenclature, classification, and documentation of catastrophic fractures and associated pre‐existing injuries in racehorses. J. Vet. Diagn. Invest. 29: 396–404.

14 14 Roub, L.W., Gumerman, L.W., Hanley, E.N. et al. (1979). Bone stress: a radionuclide imaging perspective. Radiology 132: 431–438.

15 15 O' Callaghan, M.W. (1991). The integration of radiography and alternative imaging methods in the diagnosis of equine orthopaedic disease. Vet. Clin. North Am. Equine Pract. 7: 339–364.

16 16 Edelstyn, G.A., Gillespie, P.J., and Grebbell, F.S. (1967). The radiological demonstration of osseous metastases. Experimental observations. Clin. Radiol. 18: 158–162.

17 17 Mandell, J.C., Khurana, B., and Smith, S.E. (2017). Stress fractures of the foot and ankle, part 1: biomechanics of bone and principles of imaging and treatment. Skelet. Radiol. 46: 1021–1029.

18 18 Spitz, D.J. and Newberg, A.H. (2002). Imaging of stress fractures in the athlete. Radiol. Clin. N. Am. 40: 313–331.

19 19 Jones, B.H., Harris, J.M., Vinh, T.N., and Rubin, C. (1989). Exercise‐induced stress fractures and stress reactions of bone: epidemiology, etiology, and classification. Exerc. Sport Sci. Rev. 17: 379–422.

20 20 Anderson, M.W. and Greenspan, A. (1996). Stress fractures. Radiology 199: 1–12.

21 21 Daffner, R.H. and Pavlov, H. (1992). Stress fractures: current concepts. Am. J. Roentgenol. 159: 245–252.

22 22 Deutsch, A.L., Coel, M.N., and Mink, J.H. (1997). Imaging of stress injuries to bone. Radiography, scintigraphy, and MR imaging. Clin. Sports Med. 16: 275–290.

23 23 Ishibashi, Y., Okamura, Y., Otsuka, H. et al. (2002). Comparison of scintigraphy and magnetic resonance imaging for stress injuries of bone. Clin. J. Sport Med. 12: 79–84.

24 24 Matcuk, G.R., Mahanty, S.R., Skalski, M.R. et al. (2016). Emerg. Radiol. 23: 365–375.

25 25 Savoca, C.J. (1971). Stress fractures. A classification of the earliest radiographic signs. Radiology 100: 519–524.

26 26 Pepper, M., Akuthota, V., and McCarty, E.C. (2006). The pathophysiology of stress fractures. Clin. Sports Med. 25: 1–16.

27 27 Rupani, H.D., Holder, L.E., Espinola, D.A., and Engin, S.I. (1985). Three‐phase radionuclide bone imaging in sports medicine. Radiology 156: 187–196.

28 28 Zwas, S., Elkanovitch, R., and Frank, G. (1987). Interpretation and classification of bone scintigraphic findings in stress fractures. J. Nucl. Med. 28: 452–457.

29 29 Davis, A.M. (1990). Stress lesions of bone. Curr. Imag. 2: 209–219.

30 30 Knapp, T.P. and Garrett, W.E. (1997). Stress fractures: general concepts. Clin. Sports Med. 16: 339–356.

31 31 Geslien, G.E., Thrall, J.H., Espinosa, J.L., and Older, R.A. (1976). Early detection of stress fractures using 99mTc‐polyphosphate. Radiology 121: 683–687.

32 32 Seigel, B., Alazraki, N., Davis, M. et al. (1980). Skeletal system. In: Nuclear Medicine Review Syllabus (ed. P.T. Kirchner), 539–586. New York: New York Society of Nuclear Medicine.

33 33 Ramzan, P.H.L. (2009). Transverse stress fracture of the distal diaphysis of the third metacarpus in six Thoroughbred racehorses. Equine Vet. J. 41: 602–605.

34 34 Morgan, R. and Dyson, S. (2012). Incomplete longitudinal fractures and fatigue injury of the proximopalmar medial aspect of the third metacarpal bone in 55 horses. Equine Vet. J. 44: 64–70.

35 35 Bargren, J.H., Tilson, D.H. Jr., and Bridgeford, O.E. (1971). Prevention of displaced fatigue fractures of the femur. J. Bone Joint Surg. 53‐A: 1115–1117.

36 36 Stover, S.M., Hornof, W.J., Richardson, G.L., and Meagher, D.M. (1986). Bone scintigraphy as an aid in the diagnosis of occult distal tarsal bone trauma in three horses. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 188: 624–628.

37 37 Mackey, V.S., Trout, D.R., Meagher, D.M., and Hornof, W.J. (1987). Stress fractures of the humerus, radius and tibia in horses: clinical features and radiographic and/or scintigraphic appearance. Vet. Radiol. 28: 26–31.

38 38 O'Sullivan, C.B. and Lumsden, J.M. (2003). Stress fractures of the tibia and humerus in Thoroughbred racehorses: 99 cases (1992‐2000). J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 222: 491–498.

39 39 Davidson, E.J. and Martin, B.B. (2004). Stress fracture of the scapula in two horses. Vet. Radiol. Ultrasound. 45: 407–410.

40 40 Specht, T.E., Poulos, P.W., Metcalf, M.R., and Robertson, I.D. (1990). Vacuum phenomenon in the metatarsophalangeal joint of a horse. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 197: 749–750.

41 41 Taylor, D.S., Wisner, E.R., Kuesis, B.S. et al. (1993). Gas accumulation in the subarachnoid space resulting from blunt trauma to the occipital region of a horse. Vet. Radiol. Ultrasound. 34: 191–193.

42 42 Smith, M.R.W. and Wright, I.M. (2014). Radiographic configuration and healing of 121 fractures of the proximal phalanx in 120 Thoroughbred racehorses (2007‐2011). Equine Vet. J. 46: 81–87.

43 43 Kuemmerle, J.M., Auer, J.A., Rademacher, N. et al. (2008). Short incomplete sagittal fractures of the proximal phalanx in ten horses not used for racing. Vet. Surg. 37: 193–200.

44 44 Sande, R. (1999). Radiography of orthopaedic trauma and fracture repair. Vet. Clin. North Am. Small Animal Pract. 29: 1247–1260.

45 45 Rubin, J.M., Adler, R.S., Bude, R.O. et al. (1991). Clean and dirty shadowing at US: a reappraisal. Radiology 181: 221–236.

46 46 Hindi, A., Peterson, C., and Barr, R.G. (2013). Artifacts in diagnostic ultrasound. Rep. Med. Imaging. 6: 29–48.

47 47 Minshall, G.J. and Wright, I.M. (2014). Frontal plane fractures of the accessory carpal bone and implications for the carpal sheath of the digital flexor tendons. Equine Vet. J. 46: 579–584.

48 48 Donohoe, K.J. (1998). Selected topics in orthopaedic nuclear medicine. Orthop. Clin. N. Am. 29: 85–96.

49 49 Minoves, F.M. (2019). Clinical applications of nuclear medicine in the diagnosis and evaluation of musculoskeletal sports injuries. Rev. Esp. Med. Nucl. Imagen. Mol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.remn.2019.09.008.

50 50 Prather, J.L., Nusynowitz, M.L., Snowdy, H.A. et al. (1977). Scintigraphic findings in stress fractures. J. Joint Bone Surg. 59‐A: 869–874.

51 51 Norfray, J.F., Schlachter, L., Kernahan, W.T. et al. (1980). Early confirmation of stress fractures in joggers. JAMA 243: 1647–1649.

52 52 Attenburrow, D.P., Bowring, C.S., and Vennart, W. (1984). Radioisotope bone scanning in horses. Equine Vet. J. 16: 121–124.

53 53 Devous, M.D. and Twardock, A.R. (1984). Techniques and applications of nuclear medicine in the diagnosis of equine lameness. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 184: 318–325.

54 54 Matin, P. (1988). Basic principles of nuclear medicine techniques for detection and evaluation of trauma and sports medicine injuries. Semin. Nucl. Med. 18: 90–112.

55 55 Frankeny, R.L., Johnston, P.J., Messer, N.T. et al. (1994). Bilateral tibial metaphyseal stress fractures associated with physitis in a foal. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 205: 76–78.

56 56 Martinelli, M.J., Chambers, M.D., Baker, G.J., and Semevolos, S.A. (1994). A retrospective study of increased bone scintigraphic uptake in the palmar‐plantar fetlock and its relationship to performance: 50 horses (1989‐1993). Proc. Am. Assoc. Equine Pract. 40: 53–54.

57 57 Kent Lloyd, K.C., Koblik, P., Ragle, C. et al. (1988). Incomplete palmar fracture of the proximal extremity of the third metacarpal bone in horses: ten cases (1981‐1986). J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 192: 798–803.

58 58 Koblik, P.D., Hornof, W.J., and Seeherman, H.J. (1988). Scintigraphic appearance of stress‐induced trauma of the dorsal cortex of the third metacarpal bone in racing Thoroughbred horses: 121 cases (1978‐1986). J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 192: 390–395.

59 59 Pleasant, R.S., Baker, G.J., Muhlbauer, M.C. et al. (1992). Stress reactions and stress fractures of the proximal palmar aspect of the third metacarpal bone in horses: 58 cases (1980‐1990). J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 201: 1918–1923.

60 60 Wan, P.Y., Tucker, R.L., and Latimer, F.G. (1992). Scintigraphic diagnosis. Vet. Radiol. Ultrasound. 33: 247–248.

61 61 Davidson, E.J. and Ross, M.W. (2003). Clinical recognition of stress‐related bone injury in racehorses. Clin. Tech. Equine Pract. 2: 296–311.

62 62 Verheyen, K.L. and Wood, J.L. (2004). Descriptive epidemiology of fractures occurring in British Thoroughbred racehorses in training. Equine Vet. J. 36: 167–173.

63 63 Bell, E.G. and Subramanian, G. (1979). The skeleton. In: Textbook of Nuclear Medicine, Clinical Applications (eds. A. Rocha and J.C. Harbert), 109–128. Philadelphia, USA: Lea & Febiger.

64 64 Moreira, C.A. and Bilezikian, J.P. (2017). Stress fractures: concepts and therapeutics. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 102: 525–534.

65 65 Kirchner, P.T. and Simon, M.A. (1981). Current concepts review: radioisotopic evaluation of skeletal disease. J. Bone Joint Surg. 63‐a: 673–681.

66 66 Subramanian, G., McAfee, J.G., Blair, R.J., and Thomas, F.D. (1975). An evaluation of 99mTc‐labeled phosphate compounds as bone‐imaging agents. In: Radiopharmaceuticals (eds. G. Subramanian, B.A. Rhodes, J.F. Cooper and V.J. Sodd), 319–328. New York: Society of Nuclear Medicine.

67 67 Davis, M.A. and Jones, A.G. (1976). Comparison of 99mTc‐labeled phosphate and phosphonate agents for skeletal imaging. Sem Nuclear Med. 6: 19–31.

68 68 Ueltshi, G. (1977). Bone and joint imaging with 99mTc‐Labeled phosphates as a new diagnostic aid in veterinary orthopaedics. J. Am. Vet. Radiol. Soc. 18: 80–84.

69 69 Baum, J.L. and Devous, M.D. (1980). Scintigraphic evaluation of equine lameness. Proc. Am. Assoc. Equine Pract. 26: 307–315.

70 70 Kanishi, D. (1993). 99mTc‐MDP accumulation mechanisms in bone. Oral Surg. Oral Med. Oral Pathol. 75: 239–246.

71 71 Okamoto, Y. (1995). Accumulation of technetium‐99m methylene diphosphonate. Conditions affecting adsorption to hydroxyapatite. Oral Surg. Oral Med. Oral Pathol. 80: 115–119.

72 72 Charkes, N.D. (1979). Mechanisms of skeletal tracer uptake. J. Nucl. Med. 20: 794–795.

73 73 Riggs, S.A. Jr., Wood, M.B., Cooney, W.P. III, and Kelly, P.J. (1984). Blood flow and bone uptake of 99mTc‐labeled methylene diphosphonate. J. Orthop. Res. 1: 236–243.

74 74 Stover, S.M., Martin, R.B., Pool, R.R. et al. (1992). Contribution of microfractures to dorsal metacarpal disease. Proc. Am. Assoc. Equine Practnrs. 38: 3–4.

75 75 Arthur, R.M., Constantinide, D. (1995). Results of 428 Nuclear Scintigraphic Examinations of the Musculoskeletal System at a Thoroughbred Racetrack. Proc 41st Annu Conv Am Assoc Equine Practnr. 84–87.

76 76 Ham, A.W. and Lesson, T.S. (eds.) (1961). The repair of fractures. In: Histology, 4e, 326–334. Philadelphia, USA: Lippincott.

77 77 Matin, P. (1979). The appearance of bone scans following fractures, including immediate and long‐term studies. J. Nucl. Med. 20: 1227–1231.

78 78 Greaney, R.B., Gerber, F.H., Laughlin, R.L. et al. (1983). Distribution and natural history of stress fractures in U.S. marine recruits. Radiology 146: 339–346.

79 79 Matheson, G.O., Clement, D.B., McKenzie, D.C. et al. (1987). Stress fractures in athletes: a study of 320 cases. Am. J. Sports Med. 15: 46–58.

80 80 Matin, P. (1983). Bone scintigraphy in the diagnosis and management of traumatic injury. Semin. Nucl. Med. 13: 104–122.

81 81 Pilsworth, R.C. and Webbon, P.M. (1988). The use of radionuclide bone scanning in the diagnosis of tibial ‘stress’ fractures in the horse: a review of five cases. Equine Vet. J. 20 (supplement 6): 60–65.

82 82 Pilsworth, R.C., Shepherd, M.C., Herinckx, B.M.B., and Holmes, M.A. (1994). Fracture of the wing of the ilium, adjacent to the sacroiliac joint, in thoroughbred racehorses. Equine Vet. J. 26: 94–99.

83 83 Bennell, K.L., Malcolm, S.A., Wark, J.D., and Brukner, P.D. (1996). Models for the pathogenesis of stress fractures in athletes. Br. J. Sports Med. 30: 200–204.

84 84 Ruggles, A.J., Moore, R.M., Bertone, A.L. et al. (1996). Tibial stress fractures in racing Standardbreds: 13 cases (1989‐1993). J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 209: 634–637.

85 85 Riggs, C.M. (2002). Fractures – a preventable hazard of racing thoroughbreds? Vet. J. 163: 19–29.

86 86 Davidson, E.J., Ross, M.W., and Parente, E.J. (2005). Incomplete sagittal fracture of the talus in 11 racehorses: outcome. Equine Vet. J. 37: 457–461.

87 87 Verheyen, K.L., Newton, J.R., Price, J.S., and Wood, J.L.N. (2006). A case‐control study of factors associated with pelvic and tibial stress fractures in Thoroughbred racehorses in training in the UK. Prev. Vet. Med. 74: 21–35.

88 88 Ramzan, P.H.L. and Powell, S.E. (2010). Clinical and imaging features of suspected prodromal fracture of the proximal phalanx in three Thoroughbred racehorses. Equine Vet. J. 42: 164–169.

89 89 Patel, D.S., Roth, M., and Kapil, N. (2011). Stress fractures: diagnosis, treatment and prevention. Am. Fam. Physician 83: 39–46.

90 90 Katzman, S.A., Spriet, M.P., Beck, B.R. et al. (2019). Incomplete fracture of the talus secondary to maladaptive stress remodelling in a horse. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 255: 102–108.

91 91 Milgrom, C., Chisin, R., Giladi, M. et al. (1984). Negative bone scans in impending tibial stress fractures. Am. J. Sports Med. 12: 488–491.

92 92 Scheidegger, E., Geissbühler, U., Doherr, M.G., and Lang, J. (2006). Technetium‐99m‐HDP uptake characteristics in equine fractures: a retrospective study. Schweiz. Arch. Tierheilkd. 148: 569–575.

93 93 Ross, M.W. (2003). The Standardbred. In: Equine Scintigraphy (eds. S.J. Dyson, R.C. Pilsworth, A.R. Twardock and M.J. Martinelli), 153–189. Newmarket, UK: Equine Veterinary Journal Ltd.

94 94 Dyson, S., Pilsworth, R., Tawrdock, R., and Martinelli, M. (2003). Equine Scintigraphy. Newmarket, UK: Equine Veterinary Journal Ltd.

95 95 MacKinnon, M.C., Bonder, D., Boston, R.C., and Ross, M.W. (2015). Analysis of stress fractures associated with lameness in Thoroughbred flat racehorses training on different track surfaces undergoing nuclear scintigraphic examination. Equine Vet. J. 47: 296–301.

96 96 Dahlberg, J.A., Ross, M.W., Martin, B.B. et al. (2011). Clinical relevance of abnormal scintigraphic findings of adult equine ribs. Vet. Radiol. Ultrasound. 52: 573–579.

97 97 Hornof, W.J., Stover, S.M., Koblik, P.D., and Arthur, R.M. (1996). Oblique views of the ilium and the scintigraphic appearance of stress fractures of the ilium. Equine Vet. J. 28: 355–358.

98 98 Trope, G.D., Anderson, G.A., and Whitton, R.C. (2011). Patterns of scintigraphic uptake in the fetlock joint of Thoroughbred racehorses and the effect of increased radiopharmaceutical uptake in the distal metacarpal/tarsal condyle on performance. Equine Vet. J. 43: 509–515.

99 99 Twardock, A.R. (2001). Equine bone scintigraphic uptake patterns related to age, breed and occupation. Vet. Clin. N. Am. Equine Pract. 17: 75–94.

100 100 Davenport‐Goodhall, C.L.M. and Ross, M.W. (2004). Scintigraphic abnormalities of the pelvic region in horses examined because of lameness or poor performance: 128 cases (1993‐2000). J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 224: 88–95.

101 101 Uhlhorn, H., Eksell, P., Sandgren, B., and Carlsten, J. (2000). Sclerosis of the third carpal bone: a prospective study of its significance in a group of Standardbred trotters. Acta Vet. Scand. 41: 51–61.

102 102 Kawcak, C.E., McIlwraith, C.W., Norrdin, R.W. et al. (2000). Clinical effects of exercise on subchondral bone of carpal and metacarpophalangeal joints in horses. Am. J. Vet. Res. 61: 1252–1258.

103 103 Erichsen, C., Eksell, P., Widström, C. et al. (2003a). Scintigraphic evaluation of the thoracic spine in the asymptomatic riding horse. Vet. Radiol. Ultrasound. 44: 330–338.

104 104 Ramzan, P.H.L., Newton, J.R., Shepherd, M.C., and Head, M.J. (2003). The application of a scintigraphic grading system to equine tibial stress fractures: 42 cases. Equine Vet. J. 35: 382–388.

105 105 Valdés‐Martínez, A., Seiler, G., Mai, W. et al. (2008). Quantitative analysis of scintigraphic findings in tibial stress fractures in Thoroughbred racehorses. Am. J. Vet. Res. 69: 886–890.

106 106 Gaschen, L. and Burba, D.J. (2012). Musculoskeletal injury in Thoroughbred racehorses. Correlation of findings using multiple imaging modalities. Vet. Clin. Equine. 28: 539–561.

107 107 Ehrlich, P., Dohoo, I.R., and O'Callaghan, M.W. (1999). Results of bone scintigraphy in racing Standardbred horses: 64 cases (1992–1994). J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 215: 982–991.

108 108 Ehrlich, P.J., Seeherman, H.J., O'Callaghan, M.W. et al. (1998). Results of bone scintigraphy in horses used for show jumping, hunting or eventing: 141 cases (1988‐1994). J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 213: 1460–1467.

109 109 Foreman, J.H., Hungerford, L.L., Twardock, A.R., and Baker, G.J. (1991). Scintigraphic appearance of dorsal metacarpal and metatarsal stress changes in racing and nonracing horses. In: Equine Exercise Physiology, 3e (eds. S.G.B. Persson, A. Lindholm and L.B. Jeffcott), 402–410. California, USA: ICEEP Publications.

110 110 Gray, S.N., Spriet, M., Garcia, T.C. et al. (2017). Pre‐existing lesions associated with complete diaphyseal fractures of the third metacarpal bone in 12 Thoroughbred racehorses. J. Vet. Diagn. Investig. 29: 437–441.

111 111 Bassage, L.H. and Ross, M.W. (1998). Enostosis‐like lesions in the long bones of 10 horses: scintigraphic and radiographic features. Equine Vet. J. 30: 35–42.

112 112 Johnson, L.C., Stradford, H.T., and Geis, R.W. (1963). Histogenesis of stress fractures. J. Bone Joint Surg. 45: 1542.

113 113 Stover, S.M., Johnson, B.J., Daft, B.M. et al. (1992). An association between complete and incomplete stress fractures of the humerus in racehorses. Equine Vet. J. 24: 260–263.

114 114 Barros, J.W., Barbieri, C.H., and Fernandes, C.D. (2000). Scintigraphic evaluation of tibial shaft fracture healing. Injury 31: 51–54.

115 115 Keegan, K.G., Twardock, A.R., Losonsky, J.M., and Baker, G.J. (1993). Scintigraphic evaluation of fractures of the distal phalanx in horses: 27 cases (1979‐1988). J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 202: 1993–1997.

116 116 Markel, M.D., Snyder, J.R., Hornof, W.J., and Meagher, D.M. (1987). Nuclear Scintigraphic evaluation of the third metacarpal and metatarsal bone fractures in three horses. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 191: 75–77.

117 117 Avci, M. and Kozaci, N. (2019). Comparison of X‐ray imaging and computed tomography scan in the evaluation of knee trauma. Medicina 55: 623–631.

118 118 Avci, M., Kozaci, N., Yuksel, S. et al. (2019). Comparison of radiography and computed tomography in emergency department evaluation of ankle trauma. Ann. Med. Res. 26: 867–872.

119 119 Morgan, J.W., Santschi, E.M., Zekas, L.J. et al. (2006). Comparison of radiography and computed tomography to evaluate metacarpo/metatarsophalangeal joint pathology of paired limbs of Thoroughbred racehorses with severe condylar fractures. Vet. Surg. 35: 611–617.

120 120 Vidal, M.A., Gaschen, L., and Mitchell, C.F. (2007). What is your diagnosis? J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 231: 379–380.

121 121 Bonilla, A.G. and Santschi, E.M. (2015). Comminuted fracture of the accessory carpal bone removed via an arthroscopic‐assisted arthrotomy. Can. Vet. J. 56: 157–161.

122 122 Gunst, S., Del Chicca, F., Fürst, A.E., and Kuemmerle, J.M. (2016). Central tarsal bone fractures in horses not used for racing: computed tomographic configuration and long‐term outcome of lag screw fixation. Equine Vet. J. 48: 585–589.

123 123 Vandeweerd J‐M, E., Perrin, R., Launois, T. et al. (2009). Use of computed tomography in standing position to identify guidelines for screw insertion in the distal phalanx of horses: an ex vivo study. Vet. Surg. 38: 373–379.

124 124 Gasiorowski, J.C. and Richardson, D.W. (2015). Clinical use of computed tomography and surface markers to assist internal fixation within the equine hoof. Vet. Surg. 44: 214–222.

125 125 Brünisholz, H.P., Hagen, R., Fürst, A.E., and Kuemmerle, J.M. (2015). Radiographic and computed tomographic configuration of incomplete proximal fractures of the proximal phalanx in horses not used for racing. Vet. Surg. 44: 809–815.

126 126 Poulin Braim, A.E., Bell, R.J.W., Textor, J.A. et al. (2010). Computed tomography of proximal metatarsal and concurrent third tarsal bone fractures in a thoroughbred racehorse. Equine Vet. Educ. 22: 290–295.

127 127 Del Chicca, F., Kuemmerle, J.M., Ossent, P. et al. (2008). Use of computed tomography to evaluate a fracture associated with a subchondral pedal bone cyst in a horse. Equine Vet. Educ. 20: 515–519.

128 128 Beccati, F., Angeli, G., Secco, I. et al. (2011). Comminuted basilar skull fracture in a colt: use of computed tomography to aid diagnosis. Equine Vet. Educ. 23: 327–332.

129 129 Crijns, C.P., Weller, R., Vlaminck, L. et al. (2019). Comparison between radiography and computed tomography for diagnosis of equine skull fractures. Equine Vet. Educ. 31: 543–550.

130 130 Lacombe, V.A., Sogaro‐Robinson, C., and Reed, S.M. (2010). Diagnostic utility of computed tomography imaging in equine intracranial conditions. Equine Vet. J. 42: 393–399.

131 131 Pownder, S., Scrivani, P.V., Bezuidenhout, A. et al. (2010). Computed tomography of temporal bone fractures and temporal region anatomy in horses. J. Vet. Intern. Med. 24: 398–406.

132 132 Ahn, J.M. and El‐Khoury, G.Y. (2007). Occult fractures of extremities. Radiol. Clin. N. Am. 45: 561–579.

133 133 Daniel, A.J., Judy, C.E., Rick, M.C. et al. (2012). Comparison of radiography, nuclear scintigraphy and magnetic resonance imaging for detection of specific conditions of the distal tarsal bones in horses: 20 cases (2006‐2010). J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 240: 1109–1114.

134 134 Wright, A.A., Hegedus, E.J., Lenchik, L. et al. (2016). Diagnostic accuracy of various imaging modalities for suspected lower extremity stress fractures: a systematic review with evidence‐based recommendations for clinical practice. Am. J. Sports Med. 44: 255–263.

135 135 De Zwart, A.D., Beeres, F.J.P., Ring, D. et al. (2012). MRI as a reference standard for suspected scaphoid fractures. Br. J. Radiol. 85: 1098–1101.

136 136 Viana, S.L., Machado, B.B., and Mendlovitz, P.S. (2014). MRI of subchondral fracture: a review. Skelet. Radiol. 43: 1515–1527.

137 137 McRobbie, D.W., Moore, E.A., Graves, M.J., and Prince, M.R. (2007). MRI from Picture to Proton, 2e. New York, USA: Cambridge University Press.

138 138 Westbrook, C., Kaut Roth, C., and Talbot, J. (2011). MRI in Practice, 4e. Chichester, UK: Eiley‐Blackwell.

139 139 Winter, M.D. (2012). The basics of musculoskeletal magnetic resonance imaging. Vet. Clin. Equine. 28: 599–616.

140 140 Werpy, N., Ho, C., Kawcak, C. et al. (2006). Review of principles and clinical applications of magnetic resonance imaging in the horse. Proc. Am. Assoc. Equine Pract. 52: 427–440.

141 141 Paschke, C.T. and Walliser, U. (2016). Unusual incomplete frontal plane third metacarpal fracture in a dressage horse. Pferdeheilkunde 32: 316–322.

142 142 Peloso, J.G., Vogler, J.B. III, Cohen, N.D. et al. (2015). Association of catastrophic biaxial fracture of the proximal sesamoid bones with bony changes of the metacarpophalangeal joint identified by standing magnetic resonance imaging in cadaveric forelimbs of thoroughbred racehorses. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 246: 661–673.

143 143 Mizobe, F., Nomura, M., Ueno, T., and Yamada, K. (2019). Bone marrow oedema‐type signal in the proximal phalanx of Thoroughbred racehorses. J. Vet. Med. Sci. 81: 593–597.

144 144 Warden, S.J., Davis, I.S., and Fredericson, M. (2014). Management and prevention of bone stress injuries in long‐distance runners. J. Orthop. Sports Phys. Ther. 44: 749–765.

145 145 Genton, M., Vila, T., Olive, J., and Rossignol, F. (2019). Standing MRI for surgical planning of equine fracture repair. Vet. Surg. 48: 1372–1381.

146 146 Vanhoenacker, F.M. and Snoeckx, A. (2007). Bone marrow edema in sports: general concepts. Eur. J. Radiol. 62: 6–15.

147 147 Meyers, S.P. and Wiener, S.N. (1991). Magnetic resonance imaging features of fractures using the short tau inversion recovery (STIR) sequence: correlation with radiographic findings. Skelet. Radiol. 20: 499–507.

148 148 Moser, T.P., Martinez, A.P., Andoulsi, S. et al. (2019). Radiographic/MR imaging correlation of the wrist. Magn. Reson. Imaging Clin. N. Am. 27: 601–623.

149 149 Sanders, T.G., Medynski, M.A., Feller, J.F., and Lawhorn, K.W. (2000). Bone contusion patterns of the knee at MR imaging: footprint of the mechanism of injury. RadioGraphics. 20: S135–S151.

150 150 Olive, J., Serraud, N., Vila, T., and Germain, J.‐P. (2017). Metacarpophalangeal joint injury patterns on magnetic resonance imaging: a comparison in racing Standardbreds and thoroughbreds. Vet. Radiol. Ultrasound. 58: 588–597.

151 151 Del Grande, F., Farahani, S.J., Carrino, J.A., and Chhabra, A. (2014). Bone marrow lesions: a systematic diagnostic approach. Indian J Radiol Imaging. 24: 279–287.

152 152 Spriet, M., Espinosa, P., Kyme, A.Z. et al. (2016). Positron emission tomography of the equine distal limb: exploratory study. Vet. Radiol. Ultrasound. 57: 630–638.

153 153 Spriet, M., Espinosa, P., Kyme, A.Z. et al. (2018). 18F‐sodium fluoride positron emission tomography of the equine distal limb: exploratory study in three horses. Equine Vet. J. 50: 125–132.

154 154 Spriet, M., Espinosa‐Mur, P., Cissell, D.D. et al. (2019). 18 F‐sodium fluoride positron emission tomography of the racing Thoroughbred fetlock: validation and comparison with other imaging modalities in nine horses. Equine Vet. J. 51: 375–383.