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Voluntary associations, including religious centres, hobby clubs, sport clubs and the like, are major sources of contact diversity. When a person joins an association, the probability of meeting new friends and contacts increases significantly (Kalmijn and Flap 2001). Members of an association share some kind of common interest, but at the same time, members may differ in their occupations and other social positions, making it easy to form ties to people different from themselves.

An association cannot add much to network diversity if the association is homogenous, as many are (McPherson and Smith‐Lovin 1987). Large associations are likely to include many people similar to the focal person, who can follow the homophily principle and make new ties with similar others instead of adding to diversity (McPherson and Smith‐Lovin 1987).

Smaller, more active, and more socially mixed groups are the best sources of diversity. Associations with more member activities give members more chances to get to know each other. Within organizations, the activities designed by leaders create a context for friendships to form: for example, when childcare organizations make it mandatory for parents to help organize excursions, parents invariably meet other parents. Since different kinds of associations recruit from different demographic categories, the richest of all sources of social capital is membership in multiple kinds of associations (Erickson 2004). When associations are themselves linked with other associations, members in both get a chance to meet one another. In short, institutional links foster individual links (Small 2009).

Some might argue that associations are usually interest‐based and therefore cannot be inclusive. But all associations, even homogeneous ones, draw on an ethos of cooperation, focus on accomplishing objectives together and treat fellow members with decency. Therefore, an association is simultaneously a site for social learning and a training ground for relational skills. Gerometta, Haussermann and Longo (Gerometta et al. 2005, p. 2019) put it well when they say:

The theoretical construction of a civil society, that could play an important role in fighting exclusion, remains paradoxical to a certain extent: self‐help and associations are usually built on common interests of the group members and, in such a perspective, they represent particular interests. But they all have to refer to a common frame of mutual respect and acknowledgement, and this means in the last instance a reference to the overall constitution of a coherent society, sharing some common values of non‐violent cooperation and social cohesion (Gemeinwohl). So each particular group also has non‐particular interests and orientations, which must be stressed in forming an integrated civil society.

In a sense, associations are similar to guilds. Guilds are sites of craftsmanship, with members investing in training and learning to relate to each other. They gain mastery in their craft over time. Their knowledge is ‘experience‐based rather than propositional or objectified’. It is tacit knowledge. By the same token, associations offer ‘numerous small workshops’ where members hone their civic skills. Each member is an apprentice. The primary impact of associational life is local, with ‘tacit knowledge transferred from person to person’ (Epstein and Prak 2008, pp. 5, 6, and 11).

Research on Singapore suggests associations play a substantial role in generating diversity. People who participate in associations have more diverse networks (Chua et al. 2017). They are also more likely to have a broader set of contacts that include friendship ties (Chua 2013).

In sum, associations are key ‘social infrastructures’ that bring people together (Klinenberg 2018). Tocqueville observed that associations are the bedrock of social life (Damrosch 2010; also see Putnam 1993). As sites of discussion, dialogue and action, they are fundamental to the democratic ethos of present and future cities. Multiple memberships are especially valuable because this suggests a network that spans a variety of different associations, and this, in turn, bodes well for social cohesion (Paxton 2007).