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1 Chapter 1Figure 1.1 Structure and organization of this book.

2 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 (a) Spatial distributions rain gauges in China and (b) DEM and th...Figure 2.2 Topographical map and locations of flash flood events from 2011 t...Figure 2.3 Spatial distributions of KGE' on the daily scale from 2000 to 201...Figure 2.4 Boxplots of five metrics at the daily scale from 2000 to 2018 bas...Figure 2.5 Taylor diagrams on the daily scale from 2000 to 2018 for differen...Figure 2.6 Performance diagrams on the daily scale from 2000 to 2018 for dif...Figure 2.7 Spatial distributions of snowfall from 2000 to 2018 for (a–d) CGD...Figure 2.8 CC and RMSE of CGDPA, ERA5, MERRA2, and IMERG according to the tr...Figure 2.9 Snowfall trends of CGDPA, ERA‐Interim, MERRA2, and IMERG from 200...Figure 2.10 The performance of the flash floods captured by the three produc...Figure 2.11 Percentage of flash floods caught by CMA, IMERG‐E, and IMERG‐F, ...

3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 Doppler spectra from the LANL portable CW Doppler radar. (a)–(c) ...Figure 3.2 A weak‐echo hole (WEH) and spiral reflectivity bands in a tornado...Figure 3.3 Example of a debris ball (ellipse) (a) and polarimetric debris si...Figure 3.4 Example of debris signatures in a large cyclonic tornado (c) and ...Figure 3.5 Variation with distance from the center of a tornado, near its ma...Figure 3.6 Superposition of GBVTD‐derived wind field (yellow vectors), with ...Figure 3.7 Examples of mobile Doppler radar data showing secondary vortices ...Figure 3.8 A satellite tornado rotating cyclonically around a larger, strong...Figure 3.9 Vertical cross‐sections through tornadoes showing a WEH extending...Figure 3.10 Quasi‐horizontal cross‐sections of horizontally polarized radar ...Figure 3.11 Superposition of a photograph of a tornado in southeastern Wyomi...Figure 3.12 Vertical cross‐section from ~0–5 elevation angle of (a) dealiase...Figure 3.13 Horizontally polarized radar reflectivity field in dBZe at 5° el...Figure 3.14 “Owl‐horn” echoes in developing supercells, from horizontally po...Figure 3.15 Hammerhead echo in a supercell on 10 May 2017 at 2053:57 UTC, fr...Figure 3.16 An “umblical cord” in radar reflectivity joining the hook echo t...Figure 3.17 Small vortices along the rear‐flank gust front of a supercell ne...Figure 3.18 Fuzzy logic hydrometeor classification in a hook echo in a torna...Figure 3.19 Relationship between the approximate location of a ZDR column an...Figure 3.20 A low‐reflectivity ribbon (LRR) and hook echo in a supercell on ...Figure 3.21 A region of reduced ρ_hv (and enhanced Z_DR) on the left, with res...Figure 3.22 Crescent‐shaped BWER and arc of relatively high Z_DR in the mesoc...Figure 3.23 Time (UTC)‐height (km AGL) cross‐section of the maximum differen...Figure 3.24 Doppler radar data cutting through a nearly horizontal tornado f...Figure 3.25 Dual‐Doppler analysis at 300 m AGL of the storm‐relative wind fi...Figure 3.26 Twin hook echoes and low‐level mesocyclones during cyclic mesocy...Figure 3.27 Evolution of a three‐dimensional visualization of a debris cloud...Figure 3.28 A merger of data from a rapid‐scan, mobile Doppler radar with da...

4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 The schematic flowchart of 2‐D modeling–based flood assessment an...Figure 4.2 Map of the case study area, i.e., the Nyaungdon Townhship, Myanma...Figure 4.3 Flood occurrence frequencies from the first recorded year to 2014...Figure 4.4 The recorded yearly highest water stages from 1985 to 2016 at Sta...Figure 4.5 (a) Total rainfall hyetographs of 10 observation stations and (b)...Figure 4.6 Comparison of the simulated and observed discharges of the (a) 20...Figure 4.7 Model‐simulated potential flood inundated areas for the (a) 2011,...Figure 4.8 Predicted flood affected area from (a) MODIS and (b) ALOS‐2 of st...Figure 4.9 Comparison of flood extent areas: (a) model simulation and observ...Figure 4.10 Flood hazard map of the Nyaungdon Township based on the composit...

5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Maps of Harris County and Spring Creek.Ma 2020, Figure 01, p ...Figure 5.2 County averaged precipitation rate (left) and accumulative rainfa...Figure 5.3 Grid‐scale evaluation of hourly precipitation at 99 extracted 4 k...Figure 5.4 Spatial map of Multiplicative Triple Collocation (MTC) results. (...Figure 5.5 Boxplot for conventional metrics and MTC results in Hurricane Har...Figure 5.6 (a) Schematic view of natural hydrologic processes. (b) CREST‐iMA...Figure 5.7 Comparison of EF5 simulated streamflow with USGS stream gauge obs...Figure 5.8 Flood extent and depth of (a) USGS inundation mapping, (b) SAR im...Figure 5.9 Maps displaying the intersection of the CREST‐iMAP flood extents ...Figure 5.10 Maps of flood extent simulated by CREST‐iMAP, compared to RAPID‐...Figure 5.11 The flood inundation depth at 50 USGS WHM locations from USGS WH...

6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 The architecture of the web GIS–based lumped hydrological modelin...Figure 6.2 Distribution of 323 selected USGS gauge stations and major river ...Figure 6.3 Web interface of the proposed modeling framework and its options ...Figure 6.4 User input box for date range and model parameters.Figure 6.5 The results from executing both lumped CREST model (top panel) an...Figure 6.6 Comparison of statistical indices (NSCE, CC, RMSE [%], BIAS [%]) ...Figure 6.7 Comparison of statistical metrics (CC and NSCE) between lumped CR...Figure 6.8 Comparison of execution time between PostgreSQL (left panel) and ...Figure 6.9 Comparisons of average execution time with error bar (standard de...

7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 The framework of the ensemble‐based early warning system develope...Figure 7.2 Map of the Little Tennessee River Basin, Macon County, North Caro...Figure 7.3 Spatial pattern of the cumulative rainfall from 16 to 17 Septembe...Figure 7.4 Observed and modeled hydrographs and basin‐average rainfall rates...Figure 7.5 Spatial patterns of surface runoffs modeled by the CREST and SAC‐...Figure 7.6 Modeled cumulative and basin‐averaged infiltration.Figure 7.7 Spatial patterns of slope stability predicted by four coupled flo...Figure 7.8 ROC plots for the FoS map simulated by four coupled flood‐landsli...Figure 7.9 Probability of landslide predicted by ensemble‐based system.

8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Backscattering models of different‐scale bridges over water.Figure 8.2 Yokohama Bay Bridge, which is a cable‐styled bridge located in To...Figure 8.3 Tokyo Gate Bridge, which is a truss Gerber beam bridge located in...Figure 8.4 Ryogoku Bridge, which is a Gerber beam bridge over the Sumida Riv...Figure 8.5 (a) Study area located in the Sendai and Ishinomaki Planes, Miyag...Figure 8.6 Locations of the 9 damaged bridges according to the report of NIL...Figure 8.7 (a) Difference and (c) correlation coefficient of the Jogawa Brid...Figure 8.8 Detailed information for the nine damaged bridges. Note: (a) grou...Figure 8.9 Scattering plot of the differences and the correlation coefficien...

9 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Different categories of drought and their developmentFigure 9.2 Spatial distribution of meteorological stations in Jiangsu Provin...Figure 9.3 Annual cycles of areal mean monthly precipitation in TRMM 3B43 an...Figure 9.4 Scatter plots with fitted linear regression lines of areal mean (...Figure 9.5 Spatial distribution of average annual precipitation of (a) in‐si...Figure 9.6 Spatial distribution of 1998–2015 mean seasonal precipitation of ...Figure 9.7 First column: SPI time series calculated from regional average pr...Figure 9.8 Spatial distribution of the correlation coefficients between the ...Figure 9.9 Spatiotemporal pattern of VCI for the 2011 drought.Figure 9.10 Spatiotemporal pattern of SPI for the 2011 drought.Figure 9.11 Comparison of SPI and VCI of drought and wet events for differen...

10 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 Classification and causes of droughts and interconnection betwee...Figure 10.2 Physiological, biochemical, and molecular responses of plants to...Figure 10.3 Illustration of the interactions between carbon cycle and drough...Figure 10.4 The schematic diagram of a copula‐based bivariate probabilistic ...Figure 10.5 Location and landcover map of Yunnan Province; red circles repre...Figure 10.6 Time series of the monthly SPI‐3 index of Yunnan Province.Figure 10.7 Temporal and spatial characteristics of WUE in the Yunnan Provin...Figure 10.8 Spatial maps of Pearson correlation coefficients (a) between WUE...Figure 10.9 Comparisons of correlations between WUE and SPI_current and SPI_pr...Figure 10.10 (a) Spatial distribution of the R² coefficients difference betw...Figure 10.11 The distribution of WUE anomalies in response to varied drought...

11 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 (A) Africa’s population distribution within the transboundary ri...Figure 11.2 Schematic diagram to calculate the available water resources as ...Figure 11.3 Schematic diagram shows how to calculate the potential water sto...Figure 11.4 (a) Average total water storage (TWS) anomalies between 2002 and...Figure 11.5 Maps comparing the Water Stress Index (WSI) using AQUASTAT data ...Figure 11.6 Trends analysis of (a) the surface water storage and (b) the gro...

12 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 Flowchart of the content of this chapter.Figure 12.2 (a) YRB of China. (b) Trend of naturalized streamflow of the YRB...Figure 12.3 (a–b) Evaluations of precipitation and runoff from GLDAS‐1 LSMs ...Figure 12.4 Contributions of influencing factors to the changes of naturaliz...Figure 12.5 Trends in observed soil moisture without the annual cycle from J...Figure 12.6 Trends in observed monthly groundwater table depth from 2005–201...Figure 12.7 Trends in (a) precipitation, (b) ET, and (c) precipitation minus...Figure 12.8 (a) Correlations between TWSC and the value of precipitation min...Figure 12.9 (a) Trends of LAI. (b) Ratios of LAI changes to the changes in T...Figure 12.10 (a) Evaluation of simulated precipitation. (b–d) Differences in...Figure 12.11 Differences in summer hydrometeorological variables for 2006, i...

13 Chapter 13Figure 13.1 Map of Palmer Drought Severity Index for 2000–2099.Figure 13.2 Map of the change in soil salinity from 1979 to 2007 for the wes...Figure 13.3 Schematic of the integrated system for field‐scale salinity asse...Figure 13.4 Schematic showing the electrical resistivity method with an arra...Figure 13.5 Mobile GPS‐based electrical resistivity (ER) equipment showing (...Figure 13.6 Mobile GPS‐based electromagnetic induction (EMI) equipment showi...Figure 13.7 A poorly designed apparent soil electrical conductivity (EC_a) su...Figure 13.8 Graphs showing the improvement in soil quality from 1999 to 2009...Figure 13.9 Broadview Water District: (a) Map of soil salinity levels within...Figure 13.10 Map of soil salinity within the root zone (0–1.2 m) for the wes...