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1 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 Map of the three sub‐watersheds in which the modeled farms are lo...Figure 2.2 Average slope (%) per elevation band (m) for the study sub‐waters...Figure 2.3 Inputs (bold colors) and outputs (patterns) for the farm N balanc...Figure 2.4 Greenhouse gas (GHG) emission intensity per farm and hectare indi...Figure 2.5 Changes through scenarios “maintenance,” “NapierStrips,” and “Bra...

2 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 Average maximum and minimum temperatures for the months in a year...Figure 3.2 Effect of planting dates on wheat yield at varying plant density ...Figure 3.3 Relationship between wheat yield and fertilizer N application rat...Figure 3.4 Future dryland wheat yield and irrigated and dryland baseline yie...Figure 3.5 Future dryland wheat yield and irrigated and dryland baseline yie...Figure 3.6 Average percentage yield increase per increase in N fertilization...Figure 3.7 Relative yield increase due to increased N fertilizer rate and ch...Figure 3.8 Relationship between future dryland wheat yield and simulated (a)...

3 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Map of northern Ghana indicating experimental sites and locations...Figure 4.2 Comparison of observed maize biomass yield response to inorganic ...Figure 4.3 Comparison of observed maize grain yield response to inorganic N ...Figure 4.4 Simulated N stress factors for leaf expansion of three maize vari...Figure 4.5 Simulated maize (Obatanpa) variability in response to N fertilize...Figure 4.6 Simulated water stress factors of three maize varieties under var...Figure 4.7 Simulated effects of plant population on the yield of maize grown...Figure 4.8 Simulated effects of plant population on the yield of maize grown...Figure 4.9 Average yield map of the Abontem (extra early maturity) maize var...Figure 4.10 Average yield map of Omankwa (early maturity) maize varieties at...Figure 4.11 Average yield map of the Obatanpa (intermediate maturity) maize ...Figure 4.12 Average yield map of the Abontem (extra early maturity) maize va...Figure 4.13 Average yield map of the Omankwa (early maturity) maize variety ...Figure 4.14 Average yield map of the Obatanpa (intermediate maturity) maize ...Figure 4.15 Simulated mean N response curves for the three maize varieties a...

4 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Ecosystem services provided by the agro‐ecosystem. Figure 5.2 Performance of dimensionless (a) cumulative infiltration, I*(t*),...Figure 5.3 Annual potential recharge from the soybean cropping system under ...Figure 5.4 Partition factors of the water balance components (percent) for t...Figure 5.5 Effect of inflow on potential recharge, evaporation, outflow, hyd...Figure 5.6 Effect of evaporation on potential recharge, evaporation, outflow...Figure 5.7 Comparison of the generated Q/P (runoff/rainfall) profiles by the...Figure 5.8 Comparison of observed and predicted runoff by the developed mode...Figure 5.9 Changes in annual and seasonal streamflow during the 2050s and 20...Figure 5.10 Changes in magnitude and frequency of high and low flows in the ...Figure 5.11 Changes in annual and seasonal streamflow during the 2050s and 2...Figure 5.12 Changes in magnitude and frequency of high and low flows in the ...Figure 5.13 Comparison of time‐variant observed and predicted water availabi...Figure 5.14 Comparison of mean long‐term average annual and annual observed ...Figure 5.15 Comparison of observed and predicted soil erosion by the develop...Figure 5.16 Simulated soil erosion rate by the RUSLE for different land uses...Figure 5.17 Simulated soil erosion rate by the RUSLE for the Himalayan regio...

5 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Hydrological units, location of the observation site for canal, g...Figure 6.2 Spatial distribution of irrigation amount and groundwater depth (...Figure 6.3 The schematic of regional simulation using the Agricultural Water...Figure 6.4 (A, B, C) Simulated vs. measured soil water content, groundwater ...Figure 6.5 Parameters sensitivity analysis for evapotranspiration (ET), grou...Figure 6.6 Comparison of simulated soil and crop indexes with measured soil ...Figure 6.7 Spatial distribution of (a) crop evapotranspiration and (b) groun...Figure 6.8 Temporal variation of monthly F and ET during 2009–2013. F, net g...Figure 6.9 (a) Relationship between monthly F/ET and groundwater depth, (b) ...

6 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Schematic illustration of the temperature gradient field chamber ...Figure 7.2 Simulated vs. measured grain yields of barley for four local vari...Figure 7.3 Simulated vs. measured yields of three rice varieties of Nampyong...Figure 7.4 Cumulative distribution function (CDF) of grain yield for three d...Figure 7.5 Percentage changes in rice yield from the 12 baseline years (1997...Figure 7.6 Projections of grain yields of (a) SaeChal, (c) HeenChal, (e) Keu...Figure 7.7 Grain yields of three rice cultivars as a function of early and l...Figure 7.8 Mean changes in the yield of the four barley varieties of (a) DaJ...Figure 7.9 Grouping of simulated grain yields of four barley varieties of (a...

7 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Maps of (a) the Fertile Crescent showing physiography, (b) countr...Figure 8.2 Examples of (a) current “Tel” farming system widespread in the Le...Figure 8.3 Length of growing season based on (a) the ratio of actual evapotr...Figure 8.4 Example of land‐use change and the sudden transition from semi‐ar...Figure 8.5 Example of (a) mixed farming and (b) traditional management pract...Figure 8.6 Geographical distribution of six major soil series in the rain‐fe...Figure 8.7 Probability distribution of simulated and standardized biomass, g...Figure 8.8 Heatmap of the spatial distribution of decreasing biomass yield a...Figure 8.9 Cumulative probability distribution and its ±95% confidence ellip...Figure 8.10 Isohyets of (a) simulated and annualized crop rotation yield, (b...Figure 8.11 Validation variance in simulated and annualized crop rotation yi...Figure 8.12 Yield gaps (Yg; Mg ha−1) due to RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 representative...