Читать книгу The History of Chess - H. J. R. Murray - Страница 24

The Japanese game of chess is called Shō-gi (Shō-ngi). So far as the pronunciation goes this may represent either the Chinese siang-k‘i or tsiang-k‘i, but the ideogram for the latter form is used, giving the word the meaning of ‘the Generals’ game.’ In all probability this is due to folk-etymology. The Japanese chessboard is occupied by Generals of many types—Jewelled Generals, Golden Generals, Silver Generals—and the majority of the pieces obtain in the course of a game promotion to the rank of General. And to explain the name as meaning the Generals’ game would appear far more appropriate than to call it the Figure game or the Elephants’ game, when the game shows no Elephants and the men are all alike five-edged tablets, plain save for the written name each one bears. Not only is there no evidence to show that the Japanese ever used carved figures in their chess, although their skill as carvers of ivory has long been famous, but the very peculiarities of Japanese chess would preclude the possibility of any other type of piece than the simple variety of ‘draughtsmen’ now in use. For promotions from one rank to another are very frequent in the game, and—a stronger argument still for the draughtsman type of chessman—a piece may change sides often in the course of the game.

Our knowledge of the history of chess in Japan is confined to a few notices in different Japanese works⁵⁶ which were translated for the Quellenstudien by Professor Hoffmann of Leyden. In the main these notices are identical, and probably go back to the San sai dzu e, Simayosi Anko’s Japanese translation and revision of the Chinese encyclopaedia San-t‘sai-t‘u-hwei, which was completed in 1712. None of these works give any information as to the date of the introduction of chess into Japan beyond the statement that the word shōgi is not to be found in the Wa-mei-seu, the dictionary of the older Japanese language, the compiler of which died about A.D. 986. It seems a reasonable inference from this that chess had not reached Japan in the 10th cent. The introduction, however, has been associated with the name of Kobodaisi, the introducer of the reformed Buddhism in the first decade of that century, but I cannot discover upon what authority.⁵⁷

The ordinary route followed by Chinese culture on its road to Japan lies through Corea. We may probably assume that this was also the route followed by chess, though there is no evidence that would directly support this hypothesis. Japanese chess has no affinities with the present Corean game. Some resemblances between the Japanese and the Siamese games have been put forward as suggesting another route, but these seem too slight to bear the weight of a theory that finds no support from history. Other influences than Chinese have undoubtedly been at work, and have transformed the game from a representation of warfare to a game in which it is difficult to find a representation of anything;⁵⁸ but these influences have possibly been religious in character, reflecting the known theoretical objections of Buddhism to war and slaughter. The rapid promotion which can be attained by all the minor pieces reminds one of other Buddhist games of the ‘promotion’ type in which the counter, as it moves round the appointed course in obedience to the throws of the dice, passes through a succession of incarnations until it reaches the Buddhaship which is its goal.

The Japanese authorities are unanimous in ascribing the origin of their chess to China, while they admit the wide differences that now exist between the two games. Unfortunately they have nothing to say as to the origin or cause of these changes in the Japanese chess, but this is not surprising, as the present game was fully developed before the earliest accounts of it were written. The encyclopaedias also treat the game almost entirely from the practical side, and after a few references to the Ohashi family they pass on to a discussion of the names and powers of the pieces in the various varieties of chess that have been played in recent times. To these I return later.

The present game was certainly played before the close of the 16th century, for it was under the Mikado Go-yo-zei, who ruled from 1587 to 1611, that the first and most noted of all the Ohashi family flourished. This player, Ohashi-Sokei, ranks in tradition as the greatest master of Japanese chess, and his chess works are still sold as standard books on the game. His renown was more useful to him than is generally the case with chess champions, for he was appointed by the Mikado chief chess-player of the empire, a dignity that was made hereditary in his family. The Japanese Government in old days would seem to have been excellent patrons of shōgi, for the Fak-buts-zen (1768) says that at the time of its compilation the Government allowed the best player of each generation to build a house called Shōgi-tokōro, ‘chess-place ‘, where the principles of the game were taught, and the player received an official salary for his services. And in 1860 there were seven State teachers of chess in Yeddo alone.⁵⁹

Government patronage also extended to the holding of an annual tournament for chess. According to a notice in the Japanese Mail, quoted in the Times, April 16, 1890, the palmy days of shōgi were during the long peace which Japan enjoyed under the rule of the Shōguns.

‘Once every year, on the 17th day of the 11th month, the masters of the game met in Yedo, and fought a grand tourney ⁶⁰ in an appointed place within the precincts of the palace. Judges, umpires, strict rules, and all things necessary to the combat were provided, and after the fight was over the ranks of the various combatants were officially fixed. The number of ranks was seven in all, the seventh being the highest.⁶¹ Rarely did any player attain the distinction of reaching this, but the sixth generally had one or two representatives. There appears to have been a certain element of heredity in the game as played in Japan, for certain families took the lead for many generations, and the contests between these champions were a salient feature of every tourney. To this time-honoured custom, as to many another of even greater merit, the Revolution of 1867 put a stop. A long era of neglect ensued for chess-players, but it did not fall into disuse because Court patronage was wanting. Its votaries still studied their gambits and elaborated their variations, and now once more the science promises to resume its place of importance. In October last (1889), a grand meeting of all the important chess-players in Japan was organized in Tokio. Over 200 players assembled, all boasting greater or less degrees of skill, from the first up to the sixth. Count Todo, the former Daimio of Tsu, who has the honour of belonging to the sixth rank, is among the chief promoters of the revival. Another meeting took place on the 18th of January (1890), when a ceremonial in honour of the revival of chess was performed.’⁶²

It is not unknown for Japanese to play shōgi blindfold (Jap. mekakushi shōngi or mekura shōbu = blindfold chess).

There is a very considerable Japanese literature on the game, and many of the Ohashi family have distinguished themselves as chess authors. Thus among the standard authorities are works by Ohashi Sokei, the founder of the house, by his son Ohashi Soko, who is generally named with his father as a great master, by Saindaime Ohashi Soyo, and Ohashi Soyei, by Goidame Ohashi Sokei (1810), by Ohashi Eshun, by the brothers Ohashi Soyei and Ohashi Riyo Yei (1839), the grandsons of the fourth Ohashi (Ohashi Soyei). Among other writers on the game may be mentioned Tukuzhima Zhunki, Ito Sokan (1694), Ito Kanju (1821), Ito Sokan (1849), Ito Soin, Ito Kanju (1858), S. Hamashuna (1891), S. Hasegawa (1892), S. Yamashima (1821), and Kuwabara Kunchu. The chess works of these writers comprise treatises on the practical game, on games at odds, on End-games, chess studies, and collections of problems. The advanced character of some may be judged from the fact, stated in the Japanese Mail, that ‘one leading work contains problems, the solution of which is said to make the player worthy to be placed in the sixth rank’.

Chess is very widely practised in Japan at the present time, but its popularity is greatest amongst the middle and lower classes: with the upper and the educated classes it comes only second, wei-k‘i (ī-go) being ‘the classical or, rather, aristo-plutocratic game’ of Japan.

Shōgi⁶³ or Seo Shōgi (small shōgi—to distinguish it from the enlarged varieties) is played upon a board (shōgi-ban) of 9 × 9, or 81 squares. Unlike the other games of this group it is played upon the squares, not on the intersections of the lines. The technical term for the squares, ma, means spaces, intervals, or eyes, and the last meaning can be paralleled from other Asiatic languages.⁶⁴ There is no river on the Japanese board, and no nine-castle. Nor is there any trace of these characteristic Chinese additions ever having existed in Japanese chess, nor of the game ever having been a line-game. The board is in general a small four-legged table, with a drawer for holding the chessmen, and the players squat on the ground on either side of it; but, as in China, paper diagrams are also in common use. The board is not exactly square, as the squares are slightly elongated to facilitate the play with the long-shaped chessmen.⁶⁵ At the four corners of the central block of nine squares there are small marks, either small circles or crosses upon the intersection of the lines, which are intended to mark off the three rows at each end of the board. It is on these three rows that a player arranges his men at the commencement of the game, and they are called his dominion or territory (Jap. ryōbun). They have additional importance, since a piece may receive its legal promotion as soon as it is played into the opponent’s territory.

The Japanese Chessboard.

The chessmen are five-sided or punt-shaped pieces of wood or ivory which lie flat upon the board. They are made rather thicker at the base than at the vertex, and differ slightly though not materially in size, the Kyōsha and Fu being rather narrower than the other pieces. Each man bears on the one face its ordinary name, and on the opposite face its promotion name. This is, in the case of the majority of the pieces, Kin or Kin-shō, but it is rendered possible to tell the original value, without it being necessary to turn the man over, by the use of certain variations in the manner of writing the word kin. This is a matter of some moment when there is a choice of captures possible. There is no distinction between the pieces on the two sides, but each player places his men with the vertex towards his opponent, and the direction in which the point projects alone determines to whom any particular piece belongs. When a player promotes one of his men he merely turns it over so as to show its new rank.

The pieces are called ma uma, or more commonly koma, meaning a colt or small horse. It is possible that the form koma contains the word go, = Chinese k‘i, game;⁶⁶ it is by no means uncommon to find the men used in a game called ‘horses’ Each player has twenty koma at the commencement of the ordinary game. Their names, powers of move, and promotion values are exhibited in the following table. All the pieces take as they move.

Players generally say Ō, Kin, and Gin for Ō-shō, Kin-shō, and Gin-shō. The Fu-hyo is usually called Fu or Hyo, and the Keima is often simply Kei. In the problem works the opponent’s King is called Gyok-ō-shō or simply Gyok-ō, i.e. the Usurper General.

The relative values (kurai, rank) of the koma are thus estimated by Chō-Yō: Q = 9 (9·8%), B = 7 (7·6%), Kt = 4 (4·3%), R = 3 (3·2%), C = D = 18 (19·5%), P = 1 (1·1%). This estimate is probably only a rough one, since it assigns the same value to both Hisha and Kakko, pieces with the moves of our Rook and Bishop respectively; the experience of the European game would suggest that there must be a considerable difference of force between these pieces.

As soon as a Gin, Keima, Kyōsha, Fu, Hisha or Kakkō is played to a square within the opponent’s territory, it may at once be promoted to its promotion rank; in the first four cases this is that of Kin, in the last two cases this is respectively Ryō-wō and Ryō-ma. This promotion is made in the same move with the move to the qualifying square. A player may, however, postpone the promotion to a later move if this suits his plans better. The ordinary term for the operation is naru (to turn), or more fully, kin-ni (ryō-wa-ni, &c.) naru (becomes a Kin, &c.). Other terms are natta (turned), naraseru (to cause to turn over), kaeru (to turn over), hikkurikaeru (to turn upside down), or if the promotion is made by capturing an opposing piece, torité naru (take and turn). It is not always advantageous to exercise the right of promoting a piece. The Keima, notwithstanding its limited move, is often more useful as a Keima than as a Kin, for as a Keima it can leap over occupied squares and its check cannot be covered.

The greatest peculiarity of shōgi arises from the power that a player possesses through the possibility of the replacement of prisoners (toriko) on the board.⁶⁸ Since a player generally keeps his prisoners in his hand this possibility is called tengoma (tegoma) or mochingoma (mochigoma) (man in hand). Instead of moving one of his men on the board, a player may, at any time when it is his turn to play, enter one of his prisoners on any unoccupied square and so add it to his effective forces. This manœuvre makes a capture doubly valuable; there is not only the negative value arising from the loss of the piece, but the positive value arising from its possible replacement on the board. This power, however, is subject to certain limitations and a convention. The limitations are—

(1) A second Fu may not be entered on any file upon which the player already has an unpromoted Fu. Doubled Fus (nifu) are not tolerated in shōgi, and if a player, either by inadvertence or intention, should place a second Fu in this way his opponent simply removes it from the board (Jap. nameru, nametoru, suitori, tadatoru, or tadatori, to huff), and plays his own move, precisely as a player at draughts plays ‘the huff’.

(2) A Fu or Hisha may not be entered upon the opponent’s back line, nor a Keima on his second or back line: this is because these pieces would then be unable to move and could not be promoted.

(3) A re-entered piece only possesses its original value, even if it be entered within the opponent’s territory. In the latter case it qualifies for promotion after making one move.

The convention is that it is bad form to re-enter a piece where it does not actively assist in attacking the opponent; a machingoma or waiting game is, according to Chō-Yō, considered cowardly.

This peculiarity of the game differentiates Japanese chess from all other varieties, and renders it difficult for a European to appreciate the science of shōgi. A Japanese generally holds his prisoners in his hand, but must show them at any time when requested. The usual phrase is té-ni-wa (O-té-ui-wa or té-ni), meaning ‘In your hand?’

Check in Japanese is ō-té, i.e. Jewel’s move. Double check is ryō-ōté or niju-ōté; discovered check, akiōté; the dangerous divergent checks which attack simultaneously the Hisha or Kakko are hishaté-ōté or hishatori-ōté and kakuté-ōté or kakutori-ōté. Checkmate is tsumi, tsumu, or tsunda, all meaning ‘fixed’ Mate on the K square is izuwari zeme; mate in the corner, setsuin zeme; mate on the midmost square of the board (e5), miyako zeme. To checkmate is tsumeru (to fix). Stalemate is not permitted, and it is considered bad form to mate with a Fu.

The move is generally determined by throwing up a Fu, when the opponent cries ‘Fu’ or ‘Kin’, and wins when his cry falls uppermost. In a sequence of games the winner begins in the following game. In the tournaments the match appears to be for the best of three games. The rule of ‘Touch and move’ is disregarded by ordinary players, who say ‘matta’, ‘matta-naraz’, or ‘matté’ (‘wait, please wait’) when they wish to take back a move, but experts hold to the strict rule with the penalty of moving the Ō-shō for its breach. A player who wishes to put a piece straight says ‘gomen (or shikkei) naoshite’ (‘pardon me, I adjust’).

The works which I have used give very little information about the Openings in shōgi. Chō-Yō says that all openings (uchidashi) of repute have distinctive names and are classified as regular (teishiki) or irregular (futei-shiki). He gives the following: (1) The Kakuté method (Pc3), (2) The Nakabisha method (beginning 1 Pe4 and 2 Ce2), (3) The Hishaté method (beginning Ph4), (4) an attacking opening (1 Bc2; 2 Pc4; 3 Bc3; 4 Pb4; 5 Pb5; 6 Bb4), (5) a defensive one (1 Qc2; 2 Bd2; 3 Qg2; 4 Bf2; 5 Kf3).

There is an elaborate gradation of odds (orosu, otosu), the scale being as follows: (1) aP or iP, (2) bP, (3) aP + iP, (4) R, (5) both R, (6) R + Kt on same wing, (7) both R + Kt, (8) both R + both Kt, (9) the same + a,b,h,iP, (10) C or D, (11) C + D, (12) the same + both R, (13) as 12 + both Kt, (14) all the pieces except K, Q, and B.

An expert playing against a novice will remove all his own men excepting the Ō from the board, and undertake to win with the move if he be allowed to retain three Fus in his hand. He commences by placing a Fu in front of the novice’s Kakko, winning it the following move. This chess joke is called Fu-san-mai.

The following specimen game is taken from Himly’s paper in the ZDMG., xxxiii. 672 seq.⁶⁹

In addition to the ordinary chess, Japanese works make mention of five other varieties of chess, tsiu shōgi (= intermediate chess), played on a board of 12 × 12 squares with 46 men a side;⁷⁰ dai shōgi (= great chess), on a board of 15 × 15 squares with 65 men a side; maka dai-dai shōgi, on the same 15 × 15 board with 96 men a side; dai-dai shōgi, on a board of 17 × 17 squares; and dai-shōgi, on a board of 25 × 25 squares with 177 men a side. No further particulars appear to be known of the last four of these, but the tsiu shōgi would seem to have been still played in the 18th century. The names of the different chessmen are an interesting illustration of the thoroughness with which the war-character of chess has been eliminated in Japan, and the powers of move exhibit the care with which the various possibilities of move have been investigated.

The names, powers, and positions of the pieces of tsiu shōgi are exhibited in the following table.

The ordinary chessboard of 81 squares is used for two other games, each of which is named a variety of chess. In Tobi-shōgi (jumping chess), each player arranges his eighteen men, now considered to be all of equal value, upon the first and second rows. Each man can move straight forward or laterally, and captures as in the English game of draughts. In Hasami-shōgi (intercepting chess) each player arranges his nine Fus upon his back row. Each man can move any distance forwards or laterally. When two men occupy the two squares adjacent to that occupied by an opposing man, in either a horizontal or a vertical direction, the opposing man is captured.

Two other games with the chessmen are only played by children. Neither requires the board. In the first, Furi-shōgi (shaking chess), the chessmen are used as dice. If the chessman falls face upwards it counts 1, if face downwards, 0; if it stands on its end, 10, and if it stands on its side, 5. In the other, Uke-shōgi (receiving chess), the chessmen are used as dominoes. A certain number are dealt out, and the first player challenges his opponent to pair a named piece in his hand. If he succeeds, the move passes to the opponent; if he fails, the first player throws out this piece, and challenges with a second piece, and so on. The player who first succeeds in getting rid of his hand wins.⁷²

Mention has already been made of the extensive problem literature of Japanese chess. Very few examples of Japanese chess problems have been printed in Europe, and the following selection would seem to show that the problem art is at a much more rudimentary stage than is the case in Europe. The liberal use which is made of the mochingoma powers removes much of the difficulty of construction. In none of the problems (Jap. mondai) is the winner’s King on the board, which means that the resources of the defence are materially circumscribed. As a whole, the problems show little sign of any appreciation of economy of force as a beauty of construction. The solutions show a long succession of checks, and European players will probably consider them to be on a lower plane than the Muslim problems which I give in Chapter XV, many of which were composed in Baghdād a thousand years ago.

(Problems 1–5 are taken from Chō-Yō’s Japanese Chess, to which reference has already been made. No. 6 was given by v. d. Linde in his Leerboek, Utrecht, 1876, 299.)

Solutions.

1.—1 Cd9,* + , K × C*; 2 D × Kt*,* + , K × D*; 3 De6 + , B × D; 4 Kt on d6 + , Kc9; 5 Ktb7 + , Kh9; 6 Ktc7 m.

2.—1 R × P + d, P* × D; 2 Ce5 + , K × C; 3 Ktf3 + , Ke6; 4 Df5 + , K× D; 5 Ci5,* + , Ke6; 6 C*e5 + , Kf7; 7 Ktg5 + , Kg8; 8 C* × B + , B × C*; 9 B on g7 + , K × P*; 10 P on f8 + , Kg9; 11 Rh8, *m.

3.—1 Qb3 + , K × Q; 2 Bc4 + , Ka3; 3 C*b4 + , R × C*; 4 Kt on b1 + , R × Kt,*; 5 P on a2 + , Kb4; 6 Cb2 + , R* × C; 7 P on b3 + , R* × P; 8 Bc5 + , Kb5; 9 Qb6 m.

4.—1 Q on c8 + , R* × Q; 2 Da7,* + , K × D*; 3 P on a6 + , K× P; 4 B× R*,* + , C× D*; 5 P on a5 +; K × P; 6 P on a4 + , K × P; 7 P on a3 + , K × P; 8 P on a2 + , Ka4; 9 R on a3 m.

5.—1 D × Kt*,* + , Kg9; 2 Kt on h7 + , C* × Kt; 3 D*h9 + , Kf9; 4 Kt on g7 + , C* × Kt; 5 D*g9 + , Ke9; 6 Kt on f7 + , C* × Kt; 7 D*f9 + , Kd9; 8 Kt on e7 + , C* × Kt; 9 D*e9 + , Kc9; 10 Ca9,* + , Kc8; 11 Q on c6 + , C* × Q; 12 C*d9 + , Kb7; 13 D* × C*, + , K × D*; 14 C on c8 + , Kb5; 15 C*d5 + , Ka4; 16 Ca8,*, + , Kb4; 17 C*a3 + , K × C*; 18 C* × Q + , Kb4; 19 C*a3 + , Kc4; 20 Q on d4 + , K × Q; 21 C*d3 m.

6.—1 Kta3 + , Kb6; 2 D* × R m.