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Elementary particles:

vortices and resonance in the smalles

Inertia and gravity are manifestations of objects far removed from their internal structure. The advancement of physical experiments in the internal structures of elementary particles at the beginning of the 20th century brought properties of matter to the surface, which revolutionised science at the time.

Inductive physics: surprised by quantum phenomena

These properties could no longer be explained by reference to everyday concepts and experiences; instead of the expected, ever smaller tiny spheres of matter that behaved in the same way as their larger counterparts, matter proved impossible to define within known limits. Experiments showed:

–There is no rest in the smallest particles, but constant movement;

–Particles are scattered like light waves;

–Regardless of the mass of a revolving particle, its angular momentum always has the same value or a multiple of it;

–Particles overcome energy barriers even though they have too little energy to do so;

–Interactions can only be ascribed probability, they cannot be predicted;

–Radiation can only have certain frequencies.

Atoms demonstrated inexplicable behaviour:

–Despite the electrical repulsion of the protons, the nuclei do not burst apart;

–The electrons e- remain at very precise distances from the nucleus;

–Atoms attract one another and bond together to form molecules, although they are electrically neutral (the same number of electrons and protons);

–Protons p+ and neutrons no can be brought into an “excited energy state”, which means that they themselves have an internal dynamic, in particular a composition.

Helium atom*

The major theory of physics that encapsulates these phenomena mathematically is called quantum mechanics and consists of:

–The quantum of action, or Planck’s constant, ħ, formulated in 1900 for discrete energy;

–The de-Broglie-Einstein relations for the link between energy and frequency, formulated by Einstein in 1905 for photons, by de Broglie in 1924 for electrons;

Max Planck, 1858–1947; Louis de Broglie, 1892–1987; Erwin Schrödinger, 1887–1961; Werner Heisenberg, 1901–1976

–The Schrödinger equation, 1926, for the calculation of all probabilities and states;

–The uncertainty principle, formulated by Heisenberg in 1927 to describe the impossibility of knowing the position and momentum of a particle simultaneously.

From the finding that events in the atomic dimension can only be predicted in terms of probabilities, the pioneers of quantum mechanics concentrated on calculating these probabilities and declared the corresponding formulae to be fundamental laws of nature. They responded to sceptics such as Einstein—“God does not play dice”—to the effect that the processes were objectively uncertain.

Quantum mechanics in this spirit

–allocates to every object a wave with frequency and wavelength (dependent on velocity, de Broglie-Einstein);

–interprets the intensity of the wave as the probability of the whereabouts of the object;

–calculates stable states with the “black box” of the Schrödinger equation—extremely precisely; to a hair’s breadth in comparison with the distance between New York and Los Angeles;

–keeps the standard model of elementary particle physics together,

–but cannot derive any of its axioms and laws.

Richard Feynman,

1918–1988

Richard Feynman, one of the founders of elementary particle physics, wrote: “Because atomic behavior is so unlike ordinary experience, it is very difficult to get used to and it appears peculiar and mysterious to everyone, [even] to the experienced physicist … We cannot explain the mystery in the sense of ‘explaining’ how it works. We will tell you how it works.”

Deductive physics: quantum phenomena are inevitable

Because mass dynamics radiate (emit waves), at atomic distances a superposition of waves develops, giving rise to interference waves. These correspond to the statistical waves of quantum mechanics. They are transmitted through the continuum like sound waves through air (a wave crest being equal to positive pressure, a wave trough to negative pressure, in comparison with the rest state).

The understanding of the elementary behaviour of waves opens the doors to all quantum phenomena. These have nothing to do with the idea of “atomos” (indivisible), but only the interference of radiation. The most obvious interferences encountered in everyday life are in musical instruments, for example the organ pipe: a sound wave seeks to escape from the pipe and is thrown back. As disorder in the pipe would need more energy than order, the incoming and outgoing waves oscillate synchronously, at the same wavelength and so that their nodes are at the same point. The result is a standing wave: the wave must fit in the pipe * —and this is the quantum effect!

A wave can be represented mathematically by a sine function. The calculation of the superposition of two such waves requires a simple trigonometrical relation2, which shows that two waves combine to form a single one, the product of a sine multiplied by a cosine. The sine is an envelope (not dependent on time): the abstract frame for the cosine, which actually oscillates within it in time.

If, unlike in an organ pipe, two interfering waves are differently formed, the interference wave does not remain standing. If the wave package in the envelope has velocity v , simple mathematics shows that the envelope only moves at v/2. 3

This fact alone can be used to derive fundamental laws of quantum mechanics:

–The de-Broglie-Einstein relations;4

–The rest frequency5 of a mass (Dirac 1928);

–Uncertainty.6

The following are also explained:

–The quantum of action7, the hydrogen atom8 and the harmonic oscillator9 are explained by the resonance of mechanical and quantum mechanical frequencies (similar to the resonance of a poorly-balanced wheel when its rotation frequency and the natural frequency of the wheel bearing are the same);

–Zero-point movement is explained from radiant energy being cancelled out by interference and transformed into kinetic energy;10

–The Schrödinger equation, from the superposition of the Lorentz contraction of relative velocity and potential field;11

–The Dirac equation from the rest frequency and the conservation of the energy and spin on each spatial axis;12

–Nuclear forces from the cancellation of field energy by the interference of particles at wavelength intervals.13

–Quantum entanglement (Einstein’s “ghostly remote effect”) arising from the fact that everything is connected via the continuum.14

Paul Dirac,

1902-1984

Quantum phenomena only seem puzzling if everyday expectations are projected onto the surface of atomic processes. It is in uncertainty that philosophy has been at its most adventurous—through to the concept of free will—and has intensified the uncertainty that emerges from the theory of relativity. The mysterious concept of the “dualism” of waves/particles is also unnecessary—a particle may interact as if it were a wave, but it always remains the particle that it is at rest, like a boat that causes a wave but remains a boat.

It is a given that quantum mechanics is an immeasurable creation; it is only through its existence that deductive physics becomes possible.15

The dynamics of elementary particles

Elementary particle

Elementary particles form the inner dynamics of that which appears outwardly to be an object with inertia and gravity, and possibly a charge. Inductive elementary particle physics cannot produce the connection between the internal and external. Deductive physics, however, does not seek to create a kind of bonsai proton, which already has its inertia, gravity, spin, charge, etc., but the dynamics that generate these phenomena. In the figure, the dynamics sought are represented by three points that emerge as vortices in the continuum and correspond to quarks in the standard model.

When continuum flows concentrically towards a point, the result is a black hole (if the Earth were condensed to a black hole, it would be the size of a cherry). Elementary particles, however, are not black holes: in the case of elementary particles, continuum does not flow radially, but tangentially, thus forming vortices. The frequency of rotation and the quantum mechanical frequency enter into resonance, which leads to an angular momentum ħ that determines the radius of a nucleon such as the proton.16 The ratio of the vortex radius of the proton to the radius it would have if it were a black hole is 1038*: this means that, given an equal inflow volume, radically different configurations would form.

Structures

In a space filled with a continuum with properties c, G, ħ, elementary particles organise themselves:

–Vortices form, similar to a hurricane (which consists of air and rain, though it is not air and rain, but dynamics of these; vortices correspond to the building blocks of elementary particle physics, the quarks);

–The diameter of the vortex is determined by resonance;

–Vortices radiate that which flows to them (similarly to the “dynamics of masses”)—between radiations, interference and resonance occur, like in the organ pipe; in elementary particles its discrete tones correspond to specific frequencies and thus specific energies.

Individual vortices are not viable (no quarks have yet been isolated), but they attract one another by means of interferences (the cancelling out of field energy); in pairs they form the most short-lived mesons, and in threes they are perpendicular to one another (energy minimisation), forming baryons and leptons, including the stable proton, the stable electron and the relatively stable neutron.

Conserved quantities17

Three orthogonal vortices

Physics is founded on conserved quantities, such as those of energy, momentum, charge, which remain constant as a system evolves and can be relied upon. Elementary particle physics has introduced new conserved quantities: quantum numbers. From the start, elementary particle physics allocates to each particle a set of quantum numbers, which are retained at every particle decay and at every particle collision. As an analogy, a number of men (particles), some with hats, some with umbrellas or briefcases or both (quantum numbers), enter a meeting room, and after the meeting (collision of particles) go out again—but all the hats, umbrellas and briefcases are distributed differently among the men.

Deductive physics attributes these quantum numbers to the conservation of vortices and their structures. Since

–vortices are products of resonance and energy minimisation, they continue to exist in all processes. They form the foundations of all permanence of matter;

–vortices can only exist in structures made up of threes, the topology of the structures also remains intact, which means in particular that the vortices are being conserved on each of the three axes. (To this end the standard model has put forward the law that the quarks forming a particle must have three different “colours” which are being conserved;

–the structures that produce electrical fields are being conserved, the same applies also to the charges.

In deductive physics, the large numbers of particles that appear in high-energy collisions in particle accelerators such as the LHC in Geneva correspond to a morphologically limited number of combinations of individual possible structures (similar to the arrangement of the elements in the periodic table).

Electricity/charge

“Charge” is an assumption—all that is experienced is the electrical force field. Physics attributed a cause to this—similarly to the attribution of a mass/gravity field. In deductive physics, on the other hand, charge is produced by the dynamics of masses and does not begin in the quark as a mysterious third or two-thirds charge18. There are no charges without mass as the bearer.

An electrical field consists of hollow vortices, the angular momentum of which have elementary value ħ, which are radiated by an object19 (inductive physics: “virtual photons”). Electricity is a resonance, or quantum mechanical, phenomenon, not a further quantity from nothing.

If two radiations meet head-on, they cancel each other out if they revolve counter to one another, which has the effect of attraction similar to that of sources and sinks. If they revolve in the same direction, they displace one another with a repulsion effect.

The Maxwell equations of 1864 basically describe the quantity and movement accounting for the virtual photons, and deductive physics is able to produce them. Substituting one in the other results in the wave equation for the expansion of electromagnetic radiation (light). Magnetism results from a delayed effect of the electrical field, and is consequently a relativistic phenomenon. The ratio of the rest energy of an object mc2 to the field energy of its charges corresponds to the fine-structure constant α = 1/13720, which makes clear the purely geometric link between electrical field and mass dynamics.

Electrical forces

Molecules

James Clerk Maxwell,

1831–1879

Molecules add complexity—now atoms “want” to come together and amazingly approach one another, but only to a certain distance. The protons and electrons repel one another and attract one another cross-wise. This is augmented by the “centrifugal force” of the electrons, caused by their (circular) motion, which also influence one another electromagnetically. The relationships cannot be precisely calculated and an approximation on the basis of the calculable is used. On the other hand, the binding energy can be measured precisely, at around one-third4.5 eV of the energy needed to bind an electron to the proton in the individual hydrogen atom. The magnitude is plausible if one considers the distances—between the two protons are two Bohr radii plus 1%, in other words twice the distance to the proton in which the individual electron is found.

Niels Bohr, 1885–1962

Molecular structures. The atoms in H₂O, for example, form an angle of 105 degrees, and this angle has a position in space, thus defining a plane. In the example of methane, CH₄, the four hydrogen atoms are bonded to the carbon atom in a perfect tetrahedron.

Crystals also form structures, and what has been said about molecules applies likewise to these. Binding energies differ between molecules; in the living world some can be found with extremely low binding energies. Molecular structures also form the basis for all information, thus for life and ultimately the mind.

Energy and the mind

From the “raw” rest energy of an object to the binding energy of an atomic nucleus is a hundredfold reduction; from here to the energy binding an electron to its proton in the hydrogen atom is a further millionfold reduction; from there to that of the hydrogen bond a further hundredfold. Hydrogen bonds contribute to the structures of DNA and RNA and thus represent a “preliminary stage” towards the mind.

“Matter has almost no structure—information has almost no energy.”

Orders of magnitude

Humans between the Planck length and the event horizon

Neither the radius of a proton nor that of the universe (“event horizon”) merely emerge from the fundamental constants c, G and ħ. Both must be measured. String Theory builds on an even smaller dimension—the “Planck length”, the formula of which contains all fundamental constants and is considered the “smallest meaningful length”.21

All dimensions are relative; only their relationships are absolute. Logarithmically-expressed relationships with humans as a reference dimension show these to be roughly centrally located between the perceivable smallest and largest. Space and time are also only absolute in terms of relationships, such as the speed of light—what both of these remind us is that illustrations can basically only represent relationships.

Both the Planck length and the event horizon are determined by the speed of light; for both of them it holds true that, due to the flow of the continuum into the void of the universe or into a black hole, light can no longer reach the observer.

Humans between the largest and the smallest

A foundation for the understanding of everything

That which manifests itself as matter relies on the rotation of the continuum in resonance; the inconceivable is reduced to the two ideas of empty space and specific continuum—and remains fundamentally inconceivable. The rest is deduction—but what do we know once we have deduced it all? We know that:

It does not make any sense to want to understand:

–What space, time and the continuum “actually” are,

–Why anything exists, not nothing,

–The reason why everything exists;

It is possible to fully observe how everything behaves:

–Imbalances are the starting point of everything in the continuum and lead to dynamics,

–Interactions within dynamics produce structures,

–People perceive structures in the form of matter and not as continuum as such,

–The universe is a dynamic of the same continuum,

–All structures, including the universe, have a beginning and an end—while space, time and the continuum are permanent as tools of the imagination;

There is a foundation for the understanding of everything, which genuinely moves people—unshakeable, clear, pure, free from all speculation, as:

–Structures are the basis of life,

–Life is raised through biological data processing to consciousness,

–Conscious beings collectively produce the culture that shapes individuals, and in which these individuals develop.