Читать книгу Let Freedom Reign - Henry Russell - Страница 7

Nelson Mandela, the first democratically elected black president of South Africa is celebrated for his heroic life and for his oratory. The son of Chief Henry Mandela, a minor member of the Thembu royal line, Rolihlahla Mandela was born on 18 July 1918 in Mvezo, a village in the district of Umtata, Transkei. After Mandela’s father was deposed as Mvezo Chief, the family took refuge in Qunu, just south of Umtata. He was the first member of his family to receive a Western-style education. In the schools of the time, African pupils were customarily given an English name on their first day. Mandela got ‘Nelson’ and, although he never knew why his teacher called him that – it was possibly after Admiral Horatio Lord Nelson (1758–1805), the hero of the Battle of Trafalgar (21 October 1805) – henceforth, he always retained it in front of his original forename, which means ‘he who pulls up the branch of a tree’ – figuratively, ‘troublemaker’.

Henry Mandela died of tuberculosis in 1927. While waiting to attain his majority at the age of 16, Nelson attended meetings held by Chief Jongintaba Dalindyebo, the acting regent, at Mqhekezweni, the provisional capital of Thembuland. There, he learned some of his earliest lessons in oratory and in achieving consensus through discussion. He later recalled the meetings as ‘democracy in its purest form’, where all comers were at liberty to talk without interruption about whatever was on their minds. Mandela also learned a technique for which he would become renowned: that of listening to what everyone had to say before venturing his own opinion or making a judgement. He later recalled the Chief’s axiom that a leader is like a shepherd who always stays behind the flock, letting the most nimble go on ahead; the other sheep follow without realizing that they are being directed from behind.

Mandela attended the University College of Fort Hare at Alice in the Eastern Cape Province and there heard an address by Jan Smuts (1870–1950; prime minister of South Africa 1919–24 and 1939–48). Mandela was impressed by the old statesman’s authoritative presence and gained strength from his evident difficulties in speaking English (Smuts’s first language was Afrikaans; Mandela’s was Xhosa).

Mandela then took a law degree at the University of Witwatersrand in Johannesburg, graduating in 1939. Four years later, he joined the African National Congress (ANC), and in 1944 became a founder member of its Youth League. His politics were further radicalized in 1948, when the Afrikaner-dominated National Party won the whites-only general election and instituted apartheid, a strictly codified policy of racial segregation which gave the minority white population far greater rights and privileges than the black majority.

Having renounced his claim to the chieftainship of the Tembu, Mandela opened a law firm with his lifelong friend and fellow ANC member Oliver Tambo (1917–93) in 1952. In that same year, Mandela took a leading role in the ANC’s Defiance Campaign, in which thousands of South Africans peacefully refused to obey apartheid laws. The campaign, which carried on into 1953, led to the imprisonment of more than 8,000 protesters. In 1955, Mandela was one of the authors of the Freedom Charter, which called for equal rights for all South Africans. In 1956, he was arrested and charged with trying to overthrow the South African state by violent means. The ensuing treason trial, which lasted until 1961, ended in the acquittal of all the accused.

During the protracted court proceedings, throughout which the defendants were bailed, Mandela divorced Evelyn Ntoko Mase (1922–2004), his wife since 1944, and married Nomzamo Winifred (Winnie) Madikizela (b. 1936); they were to divorce in 1996.

In 1960, the Sharpeville massacre, in which 69 unarmed black demonstrators were killed by South African police, and the subsequent outlawing of the ANC, convinced Mandela that a fair and free society could not be achieved by peaceful protest alone. Shortly after the trial, Mandela became leader of Umkhonto we Sizwe (‘Spear of the Nation’, see page 31), the new military wing of the ANC, which was formed to carry out acts of sabotage against the state.

After 17 months in hiding, Mandela was captured in 1962 and sentenced to 5 years’ imprisonment. While he was in jail, the authorities found new evidence to link him and others to Umkhonto we Sizwe. The subsequent legal proceedings became known as the Rivonia Trial, after the suburb of Johannesburg in which police had raided a safe house. They ended in 1964 with Mandela’s conviction on all charges. At the age of 46, he was sentenced to life imprisonment without parole. Mandela spent the next 18 years in Robben Island Prison, off Cape Town. In 1982, he was transferred to the maximum security Pollsmoor Prison, where he remained until 1988, when he was taken to hospital for what turned out to be tuberculosis (TB). In December 1988, Mandela was moved to Victor Verster Prison in Paarl.

Throughout his imprisonment, Mandela retained wide support among South Africa’s black population, and his case became a worldwide cause célèbre. As the apartheid regime was gradually weakened by international pressure, the government of F.W. de Klerk softened its attitude towards segregation. On 11 February 1990 Mandela was released after 27 years behind bars. On 2 March he was appointed deputy president of the ANC, becoming its president in July 1991. Mandela and de Klerk worked to end apartheid and bring about a peaceful transition to non-racial democracy in South Africa. In 1993 they were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.

In April 1994 South Africa held its first free, one-adult one-vote election, which was won by Mandela and the ANC. As president, Mandela introduced a new democratic constitution together with numerous measures to improve the lives of the country’s black population. The greatest landmark of his term of office is generally agreed to have been the establishment of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (1995–98), which investigated human rights violations under apartheid. When his term of office ended in 1999, Mandela, aged 81, retired from active politics.

There is no doubt that his deeds alone should guarantee Nelson Mandela a place in the pantheon of great political figures. But his stature is further increased by his writings, especially the autobiography Long Walk to Freedom (1994), and above all by his speeches, some of which are featured in this book.

The basis of great oratory is neither fluency nor stridency – these are the attributes of the demagogue. The true foundation, as Cicero (106–43 BC) noted in De oratore, is knowledge, and all Mandela’s speeches – from the greatest landmarks to the most informal scripted remarks – reveal in-depth research, together with a lawyer’s mastery of his brief.

Most public speakers, like artists, are part of a tradition. Some imitate the style of those who have influenced them; others invoke the names of their masters or make unmistakable allusions to them. In addition to Chief Jongintaba Dalindyebothe and Smuts, Mandela was impressed by the broadcasts of Winston Churchill (1874–1965; British prime minister 1940–5 and 1951–5). He was also influenced by the life and speeches of Mohandas ‘Mahatma’ Karamchand Gandhi (1869–1948), the leader of the Indian nationalist movement against British rule and the model for all who seek to achieve political and social progress through non-violent protest and passive resistance.

Then, from 1962 to 1990, almost the only political voice that Mandela heard – apart from odd conversations with prisoners and warders – was his own. Mandela’s largely self-taught oratory style is perhaps the finest illustration of the dictum of Georges-Louis Leclerc de Buffon (1707–88): ‘Le style est l’homme même’ – Style is the man himself.

– Henry Russell,

London, 2009