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OF NOUNS
ОглавлениеHow to Form the Possessive Case.[10]—As a rule, the possessive of nouns in the SINGULAR number is formed by adding an apostrophe and "s" ('s): as, "The boy's coat." Often the pronunciation of the added "s" makes a new syllable; and if this additional syllable makes an unpleasant sound, the possessive is indicated by the apostrophe alone ('): as, "For goodness' sake." The putting in or the leaving out of the "s" in such cases is chiefly a matter of taste. If the "s" is sounded, it is always written; and whenever there is doubt, it is well to follow the regular rule: as, "Horace's odes," "Charles's ball," "Dickens's David Copperfield."
In the PLURAL number, when the nominative plural ends in "s," the possessive case is formed by adding an apostrophe alone ('). If the nominative plural does not end in "s," an apostrophe and an "s" ('s) are both added, as in the singular: as, "Men's and boys' shoes."
The possessive case of COMPOUND nouns and expressions used as compound nouns is formed by adding the proper sign of the possessive to the end of the compound: as, "That is my sister-in-law's pony," "This is the Prince of Wales's palace."
[10] "Foundations," pp. 41–43.
EXERCISE VII. [11]
1. Write the possessive case, singular and plural, of: Actor, king, fairy, calf, child, goose, lady, monkey, mouse, ox, woman, deer, eagle, princess, elephant, man, witness, prince, fox, farmer, countess, mouth, horse, day, year, lion, wolf, thief, Englishman. 2. Write the possessive case of: James, Dickens, his sister Mary, Miss Austen, the Prince of Wales, Frederick the Great, Harper and Brothers, father-in-law, Charles, Jones, William the Conqueror, Henry the Eighth, man-of-war, Douglas, Eggleston and Company.
Use and Misuse of the Possessive Case.[12]—It is sometimes a question whether to use the possessive form or the preposition of. "As a general rule, the possessive case should be confined to cases of possession."[13]
[11] TO THE TEACHER.—To have its full value this should be given as a dictation exercise. [12] "Foundations," pp. 43–44. [13] Ibid., p. 44.
EXERCISE VIII.
Express relation between the words in the following pairs by putting one of them in the possessive case or by using the preposition "of," as may seem best:—
Charles the Second, reign; witness, testimony; horse, hoof; the President, public reception; Partridge, restaurant; aide-de-camp, horse; General Armistead, death; Henry the Eighth, wives; Napoleon, Berlin decree; teacher, advice; eagle, talons; enemy, repulse;[14] book, cover; princess, evening gowns; France, army; Napoleon, defeat; Napoleon, camp-chest; Major André, capture; Demosthenes, orations; gunpowder, invention; mountain, top; summer, end; Washington, sword; Franklin, staff; torrent, force; America, metropolis; city, streets; strike, beginning; church, spire; we (our, us), midst; year, events; Guiteau, trial; sea, bottom; Essex, death; Adams, administration; six months, wages; world, government.
[14] There is, properly, no "objective possessive" in English corresponding to the "objective genitive" in other languages. It seems best to say "The siege of Paris," rather than "Paris's siege."
EXERCISE IX.
Distinguish between the following:— 1. The President's reception. The reception of the President. 2. Mother's love. Love of mother. 3. A sister's care. Care of a sister. 4. A brother's picture. The picture of a brother. 5. Clive's reception in London. The reception of Clive in London. 6. Charles and Harry's toys. Charles's and Harry's toys. 7. Let me tell you a story of Doctor Brown (Brown's).
EXERCISE X.
Correct the following, giving the reason for each correction:— 1. A dog and a cat's head are differently shaped. 2. Whose Greek grammar do you prefer—Goodwin or Hadley? 3. It is neither the captain nor the manager's duty. 4. I consulted Webster, Stormonth, and Worcester's dictionary. 5. I like Hawthorne better than Irving's style. 6. John, Henry and William's nose resembled one another. 7. The novel is one of Scott. 8. I have no time to listen to either John or Joseph's talk.
Singular and Plural.[15]—In modern English most nouns form the plural by adding "s" to the singular. The following variations from this rule are important:—
1. When the added sound of "s" makes an additional syllable, "es" is used: as, box, boxes; church, churches.
2. Nouns ending in "o." If the final "o" is preceded by a vowel, the plural is formed regularly, i.e., by adding "s": as, cameo, cameos. If the final "o" is preceded by a consonant, the tendency of modern usage is to form the plural by adding "es": as, hero, heroes; potato, potatoes. The following common words, however, seem still to form the plural by adding "s" alone:—
| canto | lasso | proviso | torso |
| duodecimo | memento | quarto | tyro |
| halo | octavo | solo | |
| junto | piano | stiletto |
3. Nouns ending in "y." If the "y" is preceded by a vowel, the plural is regular: as, valley, valleys. If the "y" is preceded by a consonant, "y" is changed to "i" and "es" is added to form the plural: as, lady, ladies; city, cities. 4. Proper nouns are changed as little as possible: as, Henry, Henrys; Mary, Marys; Cicero, Ciceros; Nero, Neros. 5. Most compound nouns form the plural by adding the proper sign of the plural to the fundamental part of the word, i.e., to the part which is described by the rest of the phrase: as, ox-cart, ox-carts; court-martial, courts-martial; aide-de-camp, aides-de-camp. Note the difference between the plural and the possessive of compound nouns—forms which are often confounded. See page 16. 6. Letters, figures, and other symbols are made plural by adding an apostrophe and "s" ('s): as, "There are more e's than a's in this word"; "Dot your i's and cross your t's." 7. Some nouns have two plurals, which differ in meaning:—
| Singular. | Plural. |
| brother | brothers (by birth), brethren (of a society). |
| die | dies (for coining or stamping), dice (for play). |
| fish | fishes (separate fish), fish (collective). |
| index | indexes (in books), indices (in algebra). |
| penny | pennies (separate coins), pence (sum of money). |
| shot | shots (discharges), shot (balls). |
| staff | staves (poles), staffs (bodies of assistants). |
[15] "Foundations," pp. 45–47.
EXERCISE XI. [16]
Write the plural of: Lash, cage, race, buffalo, echo, canto, volcano, portfolio, ally, money, solo, memento, mosquito, bamboo, ditch, chimney, man, Norman,[17] Mussulman, city, negro, baby, calf, man-of-war, attorney, goose-quill, canon, quail, mystery, turkey, wife, body, snipe, knight-errant,[17] donkey, spoonful, aide-de-camp, Ottoman, commander-in-chief, major-general, pony, reply, talisman, court-martial, father-in-law, court-yard, man-trap, Brahman, journey, Henry, stepson, deer, mouthful, Miss Clark,[18] Mr. Jones, Dr. Brown, Dutchman, German, forget-me-not, poet-laureate, minister-plenipotentiary, hero, fish, trout, Mary, George, bill-of-fare.
[16] To THE TEACHER.—To have its full value this should be given as a dictation exercise. [17] Consult a dictionary for this and similar nouns. [18] Proper names preceded by a title are made plural by changing either the name or the title, and using "the" before the expression. We may say "the Miss Smiths" or "the Misses Smith," "the Doctors Young" or "the Doctor Youngs."
EXERCISE XII.
Distinguish between:—
1. Two dice (dies) were found in the prisoner's pockets.
2. He was always kind to his brothers (brethren).
3. How many shot (shots) did you count?
4. He carried two pailfuls (pails full) of water up the hill.
5. I have two handfuls (hands full) of gold-dust.
6. He gave the beggar six pennies (pence).
7. There are serious errors in the indexes (indices) in this new Algebra.
8. Ten shot (shots) were fired from the gun in fifteen minutes.
EXERCISE XIII.
Which of the following forms should be used? Consult Hill's "Foundations," pp. 45–47:—
1. The members of the committee were greatly alarmed at this (these) news.
2. Tidings was (were) brought to them of the massacre on Snake River.
3. The endowment of the college was greatly increased by this (these) means.
4. The widow's means was (were) at first large, but it was (they were) soon exhausted by the prodigality of her son.
5. The assets of the company are (is) $167,000.
6. The dregs in the cup was (were) found to be very bitter.
7. The eaves of the new house are (is) thirty-two feet above the ground.
8. Athletics are (is) run into the ground in many schools.
9. Politics is (are) like a stone tied around the neck of literature.
10. The nuptials of Gratiano and Nerissa were (was) celebrated at the same time as those (that) of Bassanio and Portia.
11. Ethics are (is) becoming more and more prominent in the discussions of political economists.
12. Have you seen my pincers? I have mislaid it (them).
13. The proceeds was (were) given to the hospital.
14. His riches took to themselves (itself) wings.
15. This (these) scissors is (are) not sharp.
16. Please pour this (these) suds on the rose plants in the oval flowerbed.
17. His tactics was (were) much criticised by old generals.
18. The United States has (have) informed Spain that it (they) will not permit Spanish interference in the affairs of Central America.
Nouns of Foreign Origin.[19]—The following is a list of nouns of foreign origin in common use which have peculiar number forms:—
| Singular. | Plural. | |
| alumnus (masculine) | alumni | |
| alumna (feminine) | alumnæ | |
| analysis | analyses | |
| bacterium | bacteria | |
| beau | beaux | |
| cherub | cherubim (or cherubs) | |
| crisis | crises | |
| curriculum | curricula | |
| datum | data | |
| genus (meaning "class") | genera | |
| genius | { | geniuses (persons or great ability) |
| genii (spirits) | ||
| hypothesis | hypotheses | |
| oasis | oases | |
| parenthesis | parentheses | |
| phenomenon | phenomena | |
| seraph | seraphim (or seraphs) | |
| stratum | strata | |
| tableau | tableaux | |
| thesis | theses |
[19] "Foundations," pp. 47–48.
EXERCISE XIV.[20]
1. Write the plural of: Alumna, analysis, beau, cherub, crisis, curriculum, genus, genius, hypothesis, nebula, oasis, parenthesis, phenomenon, synopsis, seraph, stratum, tableau. 2. Write the singular of: Alumni, curricula, data, bacteria, cherubim, oases, phenomena, seraphim, strata, theses.
Gender.—The following nouns of different genders are sometimes confounded or otherwise misused:—
| Masculine. | Feminine. |
| abbot | abbess |
| actor | actress |
| bachelor | spinster, maid |
| buck | doe (fallow deer) |
| bullock | heifer |
| czar | czarina |
| drake | duck |
| duke | duchess |
| earl | countess |
| Francis | Frances |
| gander | goose |
| hero | heroine |
| lion | lioness |
| marquis, marquess | marchioness |
| monk | nun |
| ram | ewe |
| stag, hart | hind (red deer) |
| sultan | sultana |
| tiger | tigress |
| wizard | witch |
[20] To THE TEACHER.—To have any value this must be given as a dictation exercise.
EXERCISE XV.[21]
1. Write the feminine word corresponding to: Abbot, actor, bachelor, buck, bullock, czar, duke, drake, earl, Francis, hero, lion, marquis, monk, ram, stag, sultan, hart, tiger. 2. Write the masculine word corresponding to: Spinster, duck, doe, Frances, goose, heifer, ewe, hind, witch.
[21] TO THE TEACHER.—This should be used as a dictation exercise.
EXERCISE XVI.
Correct the following sentences:—
1. The marquess was the executor of her husband's estate.
2. He married a beautiful actor.
3. The tiger broke from its cage.
4. The duck was pluming his feathers after his swim, and the goose had wandered from his companions across the meadows.
5. The baby girl in "The Princess" may be called the real hero of the tale.
Abbreviations.—For the following exercise consult Hill's Foundations of Rhetoric, pp. 49–50.
EXERCISE XVII.
Which of these words are in good use?—
Pianist, harpist, poloist, violinist, phiz, ad, co-ed, curios, exam, cab, chum, gent, hack, gym, pants, mob, phone, proxy, photo, prelim, van, prof, varsity.
Misused Nouns.[22]—Many errors in English consist in using words in senses which are not authorized. Sometimes the use of a word in a wrong sense makes the speaker's meaning obscure. Sometimes it makes him seem ridiculous, as when a person of the writer's acquaintance told a friend to clean an oil-painting by washing it in "torpid" water.In every case the misuse of a word leaves an unpleasant impression on the mind of a cultivated person, and, like all bad English, should be avoided as we avoid bad manners. In the following definitions and exercises a few nouns[23] are selected for study. The distinctions given are not always observed by reputable authors, but they indicate the tendency of the best modern usage.
I. A RESEMBLANCE IN SENSE MISLEADS. [24]
House, home.—A house is a building. Home means one's habitual abode, "the abiding place of the affections." It may or may not be in a house, and it may include the surroundings of a house.
Person, party.—A person is an individual, a party is a company of persons, or, in legal usage, a person who is concerned in a contention or agreement.
Series, succession.—A series is a succession of similar things mutually related according to some law. Succession is properly used of several things following one after the other; it denotes order of occurrence only, and does not imply any connection.
Statement, assertion.—A statement is a formal setting forth of fact or opinion; an assertion is simply an affirmation of fact or opinion.
Verdict, testimony.—A verdict is a decision made by a number of men acting as a single body. Testimony is an expression of individual knowledge or belief.
The whole, all.—The whole is properly used of something which is considered as one thing. When a number of persons or things are spoken of, the proper word is all.
[22] TO THE TEACHER.—It may not be desirable to drill pupils on all the words whose meanings are discriminated here and in chapters V. and VI. In that case it will be easy to select for study those words which the pupils are most likely to misuse. The words discriminated in this book are for the most part those which are mentioned in the "Foundations of Rhetoric," and they have been arranged in the same order. A few other words often misused by my pupils have been added.
[23] For misused verbs and adjectives see pages 92 and 119. [24] "Foundations," pp. 50–53.
EXERCISE XVIII.
Tell the difference in meaning between the following:— 1. Mr. Roscoe has no house (home). 2. The hotel clerk says he expects three more parties (persons) on the six o'clock train. 3. There are three persons (parties) concerned in this contract. 4. A succession (series) of delays. 5. This morning's papers publish an assertion (a statement) by Mr. Pullman, which throws new light on the strike.
EXERCISE XIX.
Insert the proper word in each blank, and give the reason for your choice.—
House, home. 1. Whenever a tramp comes to our——, the dog is untied. 2. His new—— will be finished in November. 3. Mr. S. owns a beautiful—— and has a happy——. 4. One can build a very good—— for $6000. 5. ——s are built to live in, not to look on.
Party, person. 6. There is another—— coming on the evening train, but he will leave to-morrow. 7. A cross-looking—— alighted from the stage-coach and entered the inn. 8. The cause of both——s shall come before the court. 9. Is the—— that wants a carriage at dinner or in his room? 10. He is attached to the king's——. 11. Who was that fat old—— who kept us all laughing?
Series, succession. 12. The—— of Presidents is a long one. 13. This stamp belongs to the—— of 1864. 14. A—— of calamitous events followed this mistake in policy. 15. A—— of accidents prevented the sailing of the yacht.
Statement, assertion. 16. The last—— of the bank has been examined. 17. ——unsupported by fact is worthless. 18. The Declaration of Independence contained a clear—— of grievances. 19. The orator's—— was shown to be false.
Verdict, testimony. 20. The—— of history is that Christianity has improved the condition of women. 21. Let us await the—— of the public. 22. The early Christian martyrs sealed their—— with their blood. 23. The—— of those who saw the murder was contradictory.
The whole, all. 24. ——(of) the dishes came tumbling to the floor. 25. Tell—— (the) truth. 26. Then you and I and—— of us fell down. 27. Washington was respected by—— (the) people. 28. We sold—— (of) our apples at sixty cents a bushel. 29. He has already packed—— of his books. 30. ——(the) adornments took an appropriate and sylvan character. 31. He readily confided to her—— (the) papers concerning the intrigue. 32. In the afternoon—— of them got into a boat and rowed across the lake.
II. A RESEMBLANCE IN SOUND MISLEADS.[25]
Acceptance, acceptation.—Acceptance is the "act of accepting"; also "favorable reception": as, "The acceptance of a gift," "She sang with marked acceptance." Acceptation now means "the sense in which an expression is generally understood or accepted."
Access, accession.—Access has several meanings authorized by good use: (1) outburst; (2) admission; (3) way of entrance. Accession means (1) the coming into possession of a right; or (2) an addition.
Acts, actions.—"Acts, in the sense of 'things done,' is preferable to actions, since actions also means 'processes of doing.'"[26]
Advance, advancement.—Advance is used in speaking of something as moving forward; advancement, as being moved forward.
Allusion, illusion, delusion.—An allusion is an indirect reference to something not definitely mentioned. Roughly speaking, an illusion is an error of vision; delusion, of judgment. "In literary and popular use an illusion is an unreal appearance presented in any way to the bodily or the mental vision; it is often pleasing, harmless, or even useful. … A delusion is a mental error or deception, and may have regard to things actually existing, as well as to illusions. Delusions are ordinarily repulsive and discreditable, and may even be mischievous."[27]
Avocation, vocation.—"Vocation means 'calling' or 'profession'; avocation, 'something aside from one's regular calling, a by-work.'"[28]
Completion, completeness.—Completion is "the act of completing"; completeness is "the state of being complete."
Observation, observance.—Observation contains the idea of "looking at"; observance, of "keeping," "celebrating." "We speak of the observation of a fact, of a star; of the observance of a festival, of a rule."[29]
Proposal, proposition.—"A proposal is something proposed to be done, which may be accepted or rejected. A proposition is something proposed for discussion, with a view to determining the truth or wisdom of it."[30]
Relationship, relation.—Relationship properly means "the state of being related by kindred or alliance": as, "A relationship existed between the two families." Relation is a word of much broader meaning. It does not necessarily imply kinship.
Solicitude, solicitation.—Solicitude is "anxiety"; solicitation is "the act of soliciting or earnestly asking."
Stimulation, stimulus, stimulant.—Stimulation is "the act of stimulating or inciting to action"; stimulus, originally "a goad," now denotes that which stimulates, the means by which one is incited to action; stimulant has a medical sense, being used of that which stimulates the body or any of its organs. We speak of ambition as a stimulus, of alcohol as a stimulant.
[25] "Foundations," pp. 53–56. [26] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 18. [27] The Century Dictionary. [28] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 39. [29] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 39. [30] The Century Dictionary.
EXERCISE XX.
Tell the difference in meaning between—
1. The acceptance (acceptation) of this word is doubtful.
2. The acts (actions) of Napoleon were carefully observed.
3. The colonel's advance (advancement) was not long delayed.
4. Literature has been Dr. Holmes's avocation (vocation).
5. The list of African dialects is approaching completeness (completion).
6. The completion (completeness) of this new dictionary of the Latin language will make scholars glad.
7. The professor advised me, when I went to Rome, to be especially careful in my observation (observance) of the religious ceremonies of Passion Week.
8. This proposal (proposition) made both Republican and Democratic senators indignant.
9. His mother's solicitude (solicitation) induced Washington when he was a boy to give up his intention of going to sea.
10. Shall I give your son a stimulus (stimulant)?
EXERCISE XXI.
Insert the proper word in each blank, and give the reason for your choice:—
Acceptance, acceptation. 1. The word "livery" is used in its original——. 2. This is a true saying and worthy of——. 3. The—— of a trust brings grave responsibility. 4. He sent to the President a formal—— of the position. 5. The assertion finds—— in every rank of society. 6. In its common—— "philosophy" signifies "the search after wisdom." 7. The probability of this theory justifies its full——.
Access, accession. 8. We are denied—— to the king. 9. An—— of fever occurred at nightfall. 10. The emperor at his—— takes an oath to maintain the constitution. 11. ——to the outer court was through a massive door. 12. The only—— which the Roman Empire received was the province of Britain. 13. A sudden—— of violent, burning fever had laid Peter's mother-in-law prostrate. 14. Victoria married after her—— to the throne. 15. This allusion led to a fresh—— of feeling.
Act, action. 16. I cannot do so cruel an——. 17. Another mode of—— was proposed by Henry Clay. 18. The fifth book of the New Testament records the——s of the Apostles. 19. To attempt resistance would be the—— of a madman. 20. The monkey imitates the——s of its master.
Advance, advancement. 21. The—— of the expedition was impeded by bad roads. 22. ——in the army is slow. 23. The Don and his companions, in their eager——, had got entangled in deep glens. 24. My old position offered no hope of——. 25. His hopes of—— in England failing, Swift returned to Ireland.
Allusion, illusion, delusion. 26. There were two——s in his sermon to the riots. 27. The cleverest, acutest men are often under an (a)—— about women. 28. Longfellow's "Footsteps of Angels" contains——s to the death of his wife. 29. Our judgment of people is liable to be warped by——s of the imagination. 30. Those other words of—— and folly, Liberty first and Union afterward.
Avocation, vocation. 31. Surgeons in the army are allowed by the enemy to pursue their—— unmolested. 32. The young lawyer, surrounded by his law-books, took up his—— with enthusiasm. 33. Let your base-ball be a pastime, not a trade; let it be your——, not your——. 34. Heaven is a pious man's——, and therefore he counts earthly employments——s. 35. It seems that after his return, his disciples left him and returned to their ordinary——s.
Completion, completeness. 36. The—— of the railroad was celebrated by a general illumination in the village. 37. The comfort of passengers is secured by the—— of the equipment of the steamers of this line. 38. We hope for the—— of our new building by September. 39. We were surprised at the—— of the collection of minerals.
Observation, observance. 40. The—— of a few simple rules of health would have prolonged his life. 41. The North American Indian has great powers of——. 42. He insisted on the prompt—— of the regulations. 43. The Pharisees were strict in their—— of religious festivals. 44. He is arranging for a careful—— of the eclipse.
Proposal, proposition. 45. I submit two——s for consideration by the assembly. 46. The—— that each of us relinquish something was accepted. 47. Sealed——s for building the cottage were handed in by three contractors. 48. He made a—— of marriage to her. 49. I dissent from that——. 50. A nation dedicated to the—— that all men are created equal.
Solicitude, solicitation. 51. He made frequent—— for money and clothes. 52. My mother watched over my infancy with tender——. 53. Coriolanus yielded at the—— of his mother.
Stimulus, stimulant, stimulation. 54. He worked hard under the—— of a desire to get rich. 55. The providential—— of conscience is always present. 56. The doctor came and administered a gentle—— to the patient.
III. ADDITIONAL NOUNS SOMETIMES MISUSED.[31]
