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The Beginnings of

Buaakist Art in Japan

ALTHOUGH Chinese culture had influenced Japan even during the prehistoric period, it was not until the introduction of Buddhism that the entire Japanese civilization became permeated with Chinese culture. The period during which this event took place is called the Asuka period (A.D. 552 to A.D. 645), a name taken from the place where the capital was located, or the Suiko period (593 to 628), after the empress whose rule was the most illustrious of the era. This age, which marked a complete revolution in the civilization of Japan, is important not only because of the introduction of Buddhism but also because of all the other aspects of Chinese culture, especially Confucian learning and the written language, which came in along with the religion. In fact, it may well be said that the history of Japan as we think of it today starts with the events of this period.

The arrival in 552 of a mission from the Korean kingdom of Paikche, or in Japanese, Kudara, is usually considered the starting point of this development. They brought Buddhist images, banners, canopies, and scriptures, as well as a message from their king which said in part:

This teaching (dharma) is the most excellent of all teachings; it brings endless and innumerable blessings to all believers, even unto attainment of Enlightenment (Bodhi) without comparison. Moreover, it has come to Korea from far-off India, and the peoples of the countries lying between are now zealous followers of it and none is outside the pale.

No doubt these gifts made a great impression upon the still backward civilization of sixth-century Japan and they were followed in succeeding years by other images, as well as monks and scholars and craftsmen. Although the origin both of the works of art and the teachings was no doubt Chinese and ultimately Indian, during this early period they all came to Japan from Korea. Records tell of monks and a nun, a temple architect and a maker of images arriving from Korea in 577, and still others followed in the course of the next decade. Among them were not only architects but also experts in casting spires, tile-makers, and all sorts of other craftsmen, who were able to give the Japanese professional training. At first the artists working in Japan were largely foreigners, whose work necessarily reflected a foreign style, but soon the Japanese began to adapt the importations to their own artistic traditions. For a time the fate of Buddhism was uncertain, but by the turn of the century the new religion was so firmly established that in 604 it was incorporated into the state code, which expressly said that the people should revere the Three Precious Things, namely, the Buddha, the Law, and the Priesthood.

This new code was the work of Prince Umayado or, to use the posthumous title by which he is better known, Shōtoku Taishi, or Sage Virtue, who lived from 572 to 621 and served as Prince Regent under the Empress Suiko. It is difficult to exaggerate the importance of this man, who was not only one of the most remarkable figures in Japanese history but also, along with the Indian ruler Asoka, one of the greatest patrons of Buddhism. His name, which is still revered in Japan today, stands beside that of Hideyoshi and the Emperor Meiji as one of the best known in Japanese history. Although his contributions were manifold, it is the temples he founded, many of which still exist today, that are of concern to us in a work of this nature.

The most ancient of these is the great temple of Shitennō-ji, or the Temple of the Four Heavenly Kings, which was started in 593 in what is today Osaka. Almost as old is the Hoko-ji, or Asuka-dera, built in 595 near Nara, but unfortunately none of the original buildings have been preserved in either of these temples. (Significantly enough, the abbot of Hoko-ji was a Korean priest, which is one of the many indications of the prominent part Korean Buddhist missionaries played in spreading the Buddhist gospel in Japan.) Of all the temples which Shōtoku Taishi founded, the most important and perhaps the most famous is Hōryū-ji, which was established in Nara in 607 in obedience to the command of the Empress Suiko. This temple, which today is a kind of museum of early Buddhist art, is preserved at least in part as it was originally built in the seventh century.

In 624, three years after the death of Shōtoku Taishi, there were no less than forty-six temples, 816 monks, and 565 nuns in Japan. In less than a hundred years Japan had become a Buddhist country and this in turn meant a complete transformation of the artistic culture, since the introduction of the Buddhist faith had from the very start gone hand in hand with the introduction of Buddhist images. When in 607 direct contact with China was established, this tendency towards a foreign cultural orientation became even more pronounced. It was a development very similar to that which took place under the Emperor Meiji in the nineteenth century, and what is most astonishing in both is that the Japanese in such a comparatively short time were able to accept and absorb these new ideas without losing their own identity.

BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE OF THE ASUKA PERIOD

Any discussion of the artistic monuments which have survived from this early period must start with Hōryū-ji, which is not only the most ancient but in some ways also the most beautiful temple in Japan. Its exact date is a matter of conjecture, but even if the buildings are not the original ones, they are certainly based upon designs of the Asuka period. It seems most likely that the original temple (which was completed in 607 as the result of a vow made by the Emperor Yōmei and carried out by the Empress Suiko and Shōtoku Taishi) was destroyed by fire in 670, and that the present buildings were actually erected late in the seventh century. This whole problem is far from being settled, but, whatever the date of these buildings, it seems certain that they reflect the style of the Asuka period. In any case these buildings, which are over twelve hundred years old, are the most ancient wooden buildings in the world today.

The general plan of the temple may be seen in the aerial photograph (Plate 11). It consists of a square precinct which is separated from the outside by a covered colonnade called hōrō or kairō, which resembles a medieval cloister. At the south side of this cloister there is a large gate, the chūmon, or middle gate, and on the north side is the lecture hall, or kōdō. To the right and to the left of the main axis which leads from the chūmon to the kōdō are, respectively, the Golden Hall, or Kondō, and the pagoda. Finally there are two smaller buildings to the west and east of the kōdō, namely, the kyorō, or sutra library, and the shōrō, or belfry, but these last two buildings as well as the kōdō itself were built during the Heian period. An alternate plan, which may still be seen at Shitennō-ji in Osaka, is an arrangement in which the pagoda is in front of the kondō on a north-south axis leading from the gate to the lecture hall, but the Hōryū-ji plan is the more common.

Comparing the temple complex as a whole to equivalent European designs, one sees that there are three main differences, all of them characteristic of Japanese architecture. The first is the close relationship between the buildings and their natural setting. Far from denying nature or standing apart from it as Western architecture often does, Hōryū-ji, like most other Japanese buildings, is conceived as a part of nature, the buildings blending beautifully with the physical surroundings, especially with the pine trees which grow on the temple grounds. This love of and closeness to nature, which was already reflected in the Shinto shrines, is one of the outstanding characteristics of the Japanese people. Man is seen not as lord of nature but as a part of it and, in keeping with this idea, the structures of man are related to their physical settings. The second thing which strikes one is the modest scale of this temple compared to similar structures in Europe, such as St. Peter's or Chartres. This is by no means due to the fact that Hōryū-ji was not considered important—on the contrary, it served not only as a center of worship but also, as its ancient name Hōryū-ji-Gakumon-ji, or Hōryū-ji of Learning, suggests, as a center of Buddhist study. In addition it was a kind of hospital where the Buddhist ideal of mercy and charity was practiced towards the sick and the poor. The small size of the individual buildings as well as of the complex as a whole reflects the love of the Japanese for relatively small dimensions, a love which can be seen in all phases of Japanese life and which may have something to do with the small size of the Japanese islands and with the small and graceful build of the people. The third difference is in the building material itself. Western architects usually employ stone for all major constructions, but the Japanese used wood almost exclusively, a material which their islands have in abundance and which is better suited to a country in which earthquakes are so common. The result is a lighter and simpler type of construction in which the beauty of the material is a major part of the design.

From a religious point of view the most important of these buildings is the Kondō, or Golden Hall, for it was here that the image of the deity was housed, Shaka Buddha, as is the case at Hōryū-ji, or one of the many Buddhas and bodhisattvas who were worshipped at the time (Plate 12). This seventh-century structure stood until 1949, when it was destroyed by a fire caused by the carelessness of a painter who was making a copy of the wall paintings, but the present building, completed in 1954, is an exact replica of the original. Its basic design is extremely simple, consisting of a rectangular stone platform to which four staircases lead, one corresponding to each door and to each direction. On the platform there are twenty-eight pillars which support the upper part of the structure and form five bays on one side and four on the other. The roof, particularly beautiful with its elegantly curved eaves, is a mixture of a gabled and a hipped roof, a development peculiar to the Far East and called irimoya in Japan. Beneath the main roof there are two smaller roofs. The upper one sets of! the second story, which, however, does not correspond to any functional division inside, since the second floor, which is surrounded by a balcony, serves no practical purpose. The lower roof is a later one added to protect the walls and paintings from the rain. The interior consists of a rectangular chamber with walls of wood and stucco and a coffered ceiling. In the center, surrounded by a series of pillars, there is a raised platform or dais symbolizing Mt. Meru, the world mountain, on which images are placed.

This building, if compared to the sacred structures of other cultures, seems most like the Greek temple in its restraint and simple dignity, although it is very different in respect to the prominent part played by the roof. In fact, it may be said that the roof which protects the interior from the frequent rains of Japan is the dominant element in Japanese architecture. Not only the size of the roof, which projects beyond the walls of the building, but also the elegant curve of the eaves and the weight and beauty of the grey clay tiles, so characteristic of Buddhist in contrast to Shinto architecture, add greatly to the impressive appearance of these temples. In Greek buildings the architect aimed at a perfect equilibrium between the horizontal and the vertical, but here the emphasis is entirely upon the horizontal. The building materials themselves, of course, are entirely different and the brilliant white marble of a temple like the Parthenon creates a very different effect from the subdued colors of the Japanese temple.

Although the construction of these early Japanese temples is quite uncomplicated, it is wholly adequate for its purpose, which is best demonstrated by the fact that these structures have survived longer than any other wooden buildings in the world. The pillars, each of which is carved from a single large tree trunk, show a swelling towards the center like that in the Greek columns, a trait which may show the influence of the Graeco-Buddhist art of Gandhara Province. They are topped by three forked brackets, on which rest the crossbeams, which in turn support the upper part of the building. Here a system of beams and rafters bears the weight of the heavy tile roof. In the early examples, all these members are quite simple, but in later temples a more elaborate design led to the multiplication of these forms and thus destroyed the unpretentious beauty of the design. Amazingly enough no nails were used in these buildings—they were held up simply by fitting the pieces together. Although the more characteristically Japanese style uses unpainted wood, at Hōryu-ji the woodwork was painted a scarlet, which today has considerably faded. The total effect of the reddish wood against the white stucco of the walls, the blue-green of the latticework covering the windows, the grey tiles, and the green pines is extremely beautiful and impressive.

Next to the Kondō the most characteristic structure of the temple complex is the pagoda, which the Japanese call gōjūnoto, or five-storied tower (Plate 13). This typical Buddhist structure, whose purpose was to contain a sacred relic of a Buddhist saint, was originally derived from the Indian stupa, or relic mount. However, since in China it was modified by the form of the ancient Chinese watchtower, it bears little resemblance today to the Indian monument which inspired it. The Hōryū-ji pagoda has five stories, which is a common number in Japan, although three-story pagodas like that at nearby Hokki-ji, the other authentic Asuka building, also occur, as well as seven-story pagodas and in later periods even thirteen-story pagodas. The most authentic are no doubt the seven-story ones, since the pagoda represents the magic Mt. Meru, which itself has seven stories. In Japan, however, five was considered a more auspicious number because it represented the five directions, that is, the four conventional ones plus the center. Another interpretation given in Japan is that the five stories symbolize the five elements, earth, water, fire, wind, and sky. The pagoda has no real function—in fact there is usually no room inside nor are the balconies on the various floors meant to be used. It is looked upon as a symbolical representation of the universe, with the square platform on which it rests symbolizing the earth and the central pillar which runs through the entire structure symbolizing the world axis which unites heaven and earth. It is crowned by a square shape with an inverted bowl on top representing the palace of the gods and by nine umbrellas, one set above the other, symbolizing the kingship of the Buddha as the ruler of the universe. It terminates in a finial in the shape of a flaming jewel symbolizing the precious jewel of the Buddhist truth, which shines above everything. The original meaning of the flames has been lost; in Japan, where they are called suien, or spray, it is believed that they protect the building against fire. The pagoda as a whole symbolizes the supremacy of the Buddha and the Buddhist law which towers above the earth and its inhabitants, so it might be said that its function is similar to that of the spire in the Christian church. It is interesting to note that the central pillar is not rigidly anchored so that during an earthquake it may sway without cracking the structure. Here again, as in the Kondō, an extra roof was added later, which impairs the original design by obscuring the elegance of the ground floor. Again the most beautiful part is the gently curving tile roofs. Each is somewhat smaller than the one below, a device which adds variety to the structure, the silhouette of which is visible from far off as a memorial to the Buddha.

The third authentic seventh-century structure is the chūmon, or central gate, which is composed of the same architectual elements found in the Kondō (Plate 14). Its purpose is to admit the faithful to the inner courtyard of the temple from the outer precinct, which is entered through the Nandaimon, or Great South Gate. It has five columns on each side, forming two entrances and supporting the crossbeams, and there is a double roof similar to that of the Kondō. To the right and left of the portals are two large figures of Guardian Kings, or Niō, which were supposed to keep out evil spirits. The effect of the gate as a whole with its massive roofs and fine proportions is, like that of the rest of the seventh-century buildings at Hōryū-ji, very impressive. Although few in number, these buildings not only give us an insight into the nature of Asuka architecture, but they also show how the Japanese were able to absorb what was essentially a foreign style.

BUDDHIST SCULPTURE OF THE ASUKA PERIOD

Buddhist images reached Japan with the very first missionaries who came from Korea, for they played a central part in the religious rites of the Buddhist church. At first the Buddhist community had to rely upon foreign importations, and even those statues actually made in Japan were largely the work of Chinese and Korean craftsmen. The earliest dated native Buddhist image is the great Buddha of Asuka, formerly in the now-destroyed kondō of Gango-ji and now in the Angu-in near Nara. Unfortunately this large bronze image is badly damaged and gives a very inadequate idea of the grandeur of Asuka sculpture. Far better preserved is the Yakushi Buddha image at Hōryū-ji, which is dated 607 and according to its inscription was made by order of Shōtoku Taishi following the wishes of his father. Originally it served as the main icon of this famous temple. It is believed to be the work of the Tori school, since it is very close in style to the famous "Shaka Trinity," which is now the central image on the altar of the Kondō. Since it has an inscription indicating that it was made in 623 and is the work of Tori Bushi, the grandson of a Chinese immigrant, it is of particular interest both from a historical as well as an artistic point of view (Plate 15). This celebrated image, although made in Japan, shows how close the Japanese sculpture of this period was to its Korean and Chinese prototypes, for both in iconography and style it reflects the sculpture of China of the Six Dynasties. In the center is the figure of the seated Buddha Shaka, the savior of Buddhism, and at his sides are two standing bosatsu, or Buddhist saints. Behind him is a large flaming mandorla with a halo in the form of a lotus and small images of the seven Buddhas of the Past who preceded the historical Buddha. The representation of Shaka is characteristic of the type found in China about a century earlier. It shows the Buddha seated with crossed legs (the yogi position associated with meditation), and wearing a monk's garment, a symbol of the fact that Gautama renounced the world and became a monk. His face is serene, mirroring his inner harmony, and a smile plays over his lips, showing the spiritual joy of one who, having achieved enlightenment, is no longer troubled by the cares and sorrows of this world. On his forehead is a dot called urna, a third eye indicating that the Blessed One sees all, just as his large ears indicate that he hears all, and the ushnisha, or raised protuberance on his head, indicates that he knows all. His hair is short, for when he became a monk he cut off the flowing locks which he had worn as a royal prince. He raises one hand in the abhaya mudra, a gesture telling the faithful that they should have no fear, while the other hand is held with the palm up, the so-called vara mudra, or gesture of charity. He is seated upon a lotus, which in ancient Indian cosmology was a symbol of the earth, the center of which represents the Himalayas, while the petals stand for the four great countries of Asia, namely India, China, Central Asia, and Iran. Thus the lotus throne symbolizes the fact that the Buddha is regarded as the ruler of the entire world. The halo behind him and the flaming mandorla are ancient solar symbols probably indicating that originally the Buddha was a solar deity, but later merely a sign of sanctity like the halo in the Christian art of the West. The smaller Buddhas of the Past indicate that Shaka is only one in the long line of Buddhas which have preceded him and which follow him at some future date. His two attendants are represented in a smaller size, showing their lesser importance, just as their standing position indicates their lower status. In contrast to the central figure, they are not Buddhas, that is, beings who have achieved enlightenment, but bodhisattvas, or bosatsu. saintly figures who have renounced their chance at Buddhahood so that they might help save suffering mankind. In keeping with this they are shown in the garments of an Indian prince with crown, jewels, and elaborate scarfs, since Buddha, prior to his enlightenment, was an Indian prince who supposedly dressed in this manner. In their hands they hold precious jewels symbolising the jewel of the lotus, or the spiritual riches which Buddhism gives to the faithful, the same symbol which is also found on the upper part of the central halo. The faces of the bosatsu have the same serenity as the Buddha, a look which reflects their inner peace. They stand on lotus pedestals, which are a sign of purity, for as the lotus grows in the mud at the bottom of the lake but remains pure and beautiful, so the Buddha walked through the corruption and filth of this world but remained pure and holy. It may be seen from these brief comments how every detail of the iconography is deeply meaningful in terms of Buddhist faith, and is not the whim of the particular artist who happened to make the image. In fact the artist at this time was considered little more than a humble craftsman working for the glory of the Buddha and his church rather than as a creative person in his own right.

In keeping with the transcendental and spiritual nature of the image, the style is very abstract, for it would not seem proper to represent these otherworldly beings in a naturalistic manner suited only for creatures of this world. In order to achieve this effect the artist has flattened out the figure, placing more emphasis upon the abstract design than the plastic form, and he has created a feeling of tension by stressing the linear movement within the composition. Wherever the eye turns, be it to the hanging drapery in the center, the scarfs of the attendants, the lotus designs, or the flames of the mandorla, there are dynamic, moving lines, which bring out a wonderful feeling of inner tension balanced by the serenity of the facial expressions. Here again, as in the treatment of the iconography, the artist simply reflects the style of the Chinese models which inspired him and, although no such large bronze Buddhist images of this date have been discovered in China, there can be no doubt that they existed and that it was this type of image which was brought to Japan during the middle of the sixth century.

While the Tori Bushi trinity was made of bronze, other early images were carved in wood, a material which has been used with great skill by Japanese craftsmen throughout the ages. The most famous as well as the most beautiful of the wooden statues at Hōryū-ji is the large standing figure of Kannon Bosatsu, the bodhisattva of mercy and compassion (Plate 16). It is probably somewhat later than the "Shaka Trinity," for the draperies no longer fall in winglike patterns, and the figure is far more plastic, reflecting the Chinese style of the second half of the sixth century, whereas the "Shaka Trinity" follows the style of the first half. The bosatsu is rendered in a graceful and moving way, expressing the compassion associated with the saint. The body is very much elongated, emphasizing the spiritual nature of the deity in a way that reminds one of the statues of medieval Europe, where the same type of elongation was used to express a transcendental feeling. One hand is extended in the gesture of charity while the other holds a bottle of heavenly nectar. The graceful carving of the fingers, especially in the hand holding the bottle, is of rare sensitivity. Equally lovely is the flowing movement of the scarf which extends in a long, curving line from the arm to the pedestal upon which the bodhisattva stands. Since he is a bosatsu rather than a Buddha, the Kannon is dressed in garments symbolizing a royal prince, with a crown and a long skirt and the upper part of his body bare. Another sign of his identity is the little Buddha Amida in his crown, for this deity is looked upon as the spiritual counterpart of the bosatsu. The Kannon stands on a lotus pedestal, the symbol of purity, and behind his head is a beautiful halo in the shape of a lotus flower. There are traces of paint on the statue, which originally must have been brightly colored with red and blue and green. The total effect of the statue, so gracefully carved and filled with such quiet serenity, is one of rare spiritual beauty. It is traditionally referred to as the "Kudara Kannon," after the Korean kingdom from which it is supposed to have come, but since there are no comparable Korean or Chinese images, it may well be a native Japanese work.

The seated image of Miroku Bosatsu at Koryu-ji in Kyoto is no doubt of Korean origin, since there are images in Korea which are almost identical in style and iconography. However, it is impossible to tell which images were brought to Japan from the continent, which were made in Japan by foreign artists, and which were made by native Japanese craftsmen who had studied, with foreign teachers. Formerly, Japanese temples often ascribed works to Korean or Chinese sculptors, hoping to increase the prestige of the images, but in modern times, influenced by the rising nationalism, Japanese scholars have been somewhat reluctant to admit that any of these works were not done by Japanese artists. The truth as so often happens probably lies somewhere between, and at this point the origin of such works can not be determined with certainty. In any case, the statue of the Buddha of the Future, or Miroku, is one of the most moving and graceful Buddhist images in Japanese art. It shows him seated in deep meditation on a lotus throne with one leg hanging down, while the other one crosses it at right angles. The bare upper part of the body is smooth and round, while the lower part is covered with drapery falling in many folds. One arm is bent, with the hand resting upon the ankle of the crossed leg, while the fingers of the other touch the chin in a gesture associated with spiritual contemplation. Here again, as in the "Kudara Kannon," the carving of the fingers is particularly sensitive. Wonderfully carved also are the half-closed eyes, the sharp, curved nose, and the mouth, over which a slight smile hovers. Certainly the sculptor, whose name and career are completely unknown, was one of the great artists of the period.

The masterpiece of Asuka sculpture, and one of the truly great works of sculpture of all times is the Miroku at Chūgū-ji in Nara (Plate 17). In iconography this image is almost identical with the Koryu-ji one, and, although according to tradition it is believed to be a representation of Kannon, it too must be looked upon as an image of Miroku, the messiah of Buddhism, for inscriptions on similar images specifically say that this type of image represented this deity. The chief iconographical difference between the two images is that instead of a headdress, the one at Chūgū-ji has two balls which represent a very stylized version of the hair style of the time. Other minor differences are the halo behind his head, the scarfs hanging from his shoulders, and the raised lotus supporting the foot which is hanging down. But the true difference is in the execution of the sculpture rather than the iconography. Like the Koryu-ji image, the one at Chūgū-ji is carved in wood, but the surface is so smooth, and so darkened by age and incense that it looks almost like metal. The form, which is both more plastic and more abstract, recalls the rounded shapes of the haniwa, suggesting that this is indeed a native Japanese work. It is perhaps this simplification of form which particularly appeals to the modern eye, for the sculptor has been able to combine natural observation with abstractness in a very beautiful manner. The plastic form of the torso, the rounded arms, the egg shape of the head and the balls of hair are all highly abstract, and yet they give a clear idea of the natural forms which inspired them. Every detail comes to life, not just in the figure but in the falling cascades of the drapery, which make a wonderful pattern (Plate 18). Most moving of all is the face, which gives perfect expression to Buddhism, with its ideal of complete inner harmony. Nowhere else has this ideal found a purer or more beautiful embodiment. The eyes are almost shut, creating a feeling of dreaminess; the mouth is slightly parted with a gentle smile playing over the lips; the expression of the whole suggests a profound spiritual peace. No words can do justice to this face, which is one of the most beautiful and moving ever created, an achievement which is doubly remarkable when we remember that this image was made by an unknown craftsman only fifty years after this type of Buddhist carving had been introduced into Japan.

There are several other Buddhist images which have come down to us from the Asuka period. Among them the most famous, perhaps, is the "Yumedono Kannon" in the Yumedono, or Hall of Dreams, at Hōryū-ji. According to tradition, it was made for the great Buddhist prince, Shōtoku Taishi, for his private contemplation, but this is no longer believed to be true. Besides this there are the Four Guardian Kings, or Shitenno, which face the four directions on the altar of the Hōryū-ji Kondō, and the six standing bosatsu also at Hōryū-ji. Then there is an interesting group of bronze images called the forty-eight Buddhas, as well as the charming carvings of angels and phoenixes hanging from the canopy in the Kondō at Hōryū-ji.

BUDDHIST PAINTING OF THE ASUKA PERIOD

There can be little doubt that painting flourished along with architecture and sculpture during the Asuka period, but because of the fragile nature of the material, few examples have survived. In fact the paintings on the sides of the Tamamushi Shrine, formely on the altar in the Kondō at Hōryū-ji and now in the treasure house of this temple, are almost the only authentic Asuka paintings which have come down to us. This miniature shrine was called Tamamushi after the jewel insects whose irridescent wings were originally used to decorate the lovely honeysuckle-design metalwork which ornaments the shrine. The paintings themselves are of great importance historically and iconographically, as well as being of considerable artistic merit. Executed in a mixture of lacquer and a kind of oil paint called mitsuda, they are the earliest oil paintings in the world. It must be added that the Japanese did not develop this technique any further, although there are some isolated examples of oil painting in the Shōsō-in from the Nara period.

On the door of the little shrine are pictures of two Niō or, Guardian Kings, like those in the chūmon at Hōryū-ji. Derived originally from Hinduism, they were incorporated into the Buddhist pantheon as minor deities who protected the holy place against evil spirits. On the other sides of the shrine are paintings of bodhisattvas holding lotus flowers, figures which are done in a graceful, flowing style reminiscent of the Six Dynasties period paintings at the great cave temples at Tun Huang. On the back side is a mountain landscape with three pagodas, in which Buddhas are seated surrounded by rakan, or holy men, Buddhist angels, phoenixes, and the sun and the moon.

The high pedestal is decorated with four additional paintings, the loveliest of which is the one showing an episode from the previous incarnation of Buddha as Prince Siddharta (Plate 19). This story tells how the Blessed One, when wandering upon a mountainside, sees a starving tigress with her seven cubs. Moved by compassion, he immediately decides to give up his own life so that the tigress and her young can feed upon his body. The artist, who portrays the episode in simple and naive terms, represents three different phases of the story within the same painting. In the upper part the Buddha is seen disrobing himself; in the center he is throwing himself over the cliff; and at the bottom the tigress and her young are eating his body.

The style of the painting is extremely abstract, yet at the same time the sophisticated technique suggests that this is not a primitive type of painting evolved in Japan but an adaptation of the style of painting which flourished in China during the Six Dynasties period. The treatment of space is very two-dimensional, with the black lacquer used for the background. Against this the artist has painted in different colored lacquers, using red for the garments and some of the rocks, and green and yellow for the trees and bushes and also for other rocks and parts of the figures. The forms themselves are very stylized and the elongated bodies, which recall the slender and graceful figure of the "Kudara Kannon," reflect the style of the Sui dynasty of China. Even more abstract is the treatment of the mountainside, where rocks and rolling hills are reduced to an ornamental pattern that gives the design a striking sense of movement. A further element of movement is introduced by the descending vertical of the figure which leads the eye from the upper left to the lower right and thus, both in terms of the story as well as the design, unites the different parts of the picture. The empty space of the background is brought to life by the delicate patterns of the bamboo, as well as by the falling lotus flowers in the upper half and the hanging willow and small pines at the left. The total effect is both accomplished and charming, indicating what heights Buddhist painting had already achieved by the end of the Asuka period.

Plate 11. Aerial View of Hōryū-ji, Nara. Asuka period.

Plate 12. Kondō (Golden Hall), Hōryū-ji, Nara. Asuka period.

Plate 13. Five-Story Pagoda, Hōryū-ji, Nara. Asuka period.

Plate 14. Cloister and Central Gate, Hōryū-ji, Nara. Asuka period.

Plate 15. Tori Bushi Trinity. Asuka period.

Plate 16. Kudara Kannon. Asuka period.

Plate 17. Miroku Bosatsu (detail). Asuka period.

Plate 18. Miroku Bosatsu. Asuka period.

Plate 19. Jataka Scene, Tamamushi Shrine.

Plate 20. Gilded Bronze Banner. Asuka period.

THE CRAFTS OF THE ASUKA PERIOD

Although very few examples have been preserved, literary accounts leave little doubt that Japan of the sixth and seventh centuries was also productive in crafts. The Tamamushi Shrine shows the skill which had been developed in the art of lacquer and metalwork, and there certainly must have been many other works in these media which have perished during the intervening centuries. The most outstanding example of Asuka metalwork surviving today is the famous gilded bronze banner, or ban, which was used for ceremonial occasions at Hōryū-ji (Plate 20). It consists of a square canopy, strings of gems, and metal banners, the main one of which is five meters long. The design on the canopy shows Apsarases, or music-making Buddhist angels, while the hanging sections portray bodhisattvas, Apsarases, and Buddhist reliquaries. The workmanship, which is both skillful and delicate, shows a style quite similar to that of the Tamamushi Shrine—in fact the vine motif in the border is almost identical in both. This motif is, interestingly enough, a very ancient one which comes from Korea and China and was originally derived from even more distant countries. The emphasis in the bronze banner is upon the flowing, rhythmical movement of draperies and flying figures, a movement which is reinforced by the use of incised lines. The draperies swirl in charming arabesques, and the figures, which are elongated like those in the sculptures and paintings of the period, have a freedom which makes them virtually float in the air. Often a body is reduced to a simple, curving form, but it is rendered so skillfully that it creates a fine suggestion of reality. There is a strong over-all pattern, also very beautiful, which is achieved by the contrast of the gilded bronze with the cut-out areas.

In the field of pottery, the output of the Asuka period was probably much less remarkable, if we can judge from the scanty remains. Apparently Sue ware similar to that of the grave-mound period continued to be made, the body dark grey and at times covered with a greenish glaze. The quality of this pottery was not very outstanding, and there is little evidence of any new or original developments.

If the pottery was inferior, textiles seem to have flourished. Some beautiful fragments of Asuka textiles have been preserved at Hōryū-ji which show considerable variety both in design and technique. The most remarkable is the banner which, according to literary accounts, Princess Tachibana and her court lathes embroidered in 622 in memory of Shōtoku Taishi. The subject portrayed is the rebirth of the Prince in paradise, and it was hoped that his chances for eternal bliss might be furthered by this act. Only parts of the banner remain, but the quality of the silk and the needlework is very fine. Temples, human beings, lotus flowers, phoenixes, a tortoise, and the moon with the hare in it are represented. The style is similar to that of other works of this period, showing the same kind of abstraction.

The Asuka period, which was the first great creative period of Buddhist art in Japan, was a most remarkable one, for even though relatively few monuments have survived, those that have are of the highest artistic quality. Although the inspiration for the art came from China by way of Korea, the Japanese must be given credit for the way in which they responded to this new culture. In spite of the relatively primitive art which they had previously produced, in little more than a generation they were able not only to master the foreign art but to equal it in quality and variety, an accomplishment which certainly shows their artistic genius. It might also be said that since many of these art forms, although originating in China, have not been preserved in China itself, the Japanese examples are unique not only for the study of Japanese art but for that of China and Korea as well. This is especially true of the temple buildings and the wood carvings, of which no equivalents have been found in China. The fact that so much has been preserved by the Japanese is in itself indicative of the artistic culture of Japan, where, throughout the ages, works of art have been held in the highest esteem.