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Chapter I. Moses Hess and the Shabbat of History

I. 1 Messianic Mission

The intellectual path of Moses Hess can be a good illustration of the process of assimilation, which intensified in the Jewish Diaspora in the nineteenth century. It was connected with social changes initiated by the French Revolution and the advancing emancipation of the Jewish community. Hess may serve as an example of these changes. At the beginning of the book Rome and Jerusalem, he points out that he initially followed the assimilation wave, just to return to the Jewish community twenty years later. In his opinion, this was related to the promotion of the Messianic idea of restoration of mankind as a whole, given to the Jewish people as a historic mission.¹ His return to Judaism was determined by the task ←19 | 20→he set himself: after years of studying the Pantheist philosophy of Spinoza and Hegel’s conception of history, Hess became one of the fathers and promoters of socialism, collaborating with Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels,² though there were some fundamental differences between Hess and Marx (and Engels), both in the approach to socialism and to the Jewish question. Hess recalls that the impulse for his return to the Jewry was events connected with pogroms involving Jews in Damascus in 1840.³ They made him realize that history may be repeating itself and perhaps Jews were nearing the point when they had to restore mankind.

Ever stronger national movements in Europe contributed to the growth of traditional anti-Semitism. As a result of social transformations, its form also changed: it was no longer based on religious antipathy consolidated in the Christianity since the Middle Ages, but it was related to the emergence of national ideology and the concept of races, which Hess emphasized.⁴ All this was enough for the author to adopt the thesis on the unique role of the Jewish nation, based on the religious concept of Messianism, which he combined with the social postulates of the socialist ideology. Religion, approached by Hess in a specific way – from the perspective of an assimilated and emancipated Jew – gave Jews the access to the modern world and made them equal to great nations, which according to Hegel’s concept of history,⁵ took over the world leadership ←20 | 21→from one another, contributing to the constant progress of mankind. Jews are nearing that most important time prophesied by great prophets, when they finally can play their role in the history of the world connected with the restoration of the humanity and the implementation of the idea of universal humanitarianism.⁶ Hess saw a new role for religion, implementing the successive stages of the cosmic history of creation. This definitely could not have been accepted by the traditional orthodoxy of the Diaspora. Such a religion goes beyond the Jewish individualism taken over by Christianity, perceiving the decisive role of an individual in the act of creation (God created the world made up of individuals – indivisible, perfect entities) and in the final act of salvation. It refers to the group, community and humanity seen in the context of one general organism. According to the author, the Jewish religion gives the world an opportunity to unify and achieve the universal happiness of mankind; thanks to Judaism, the history will become holy, showing mankind the direction and the ultimate goal. Judaism plays an active role; it is not just passive consent to the historical necessity but a factor dynamically participating in the formation of history.⁷

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According to Hess, an important factor that determines the essence of the Jewish religion and the Jewish identity is the category of immortality. The promise of immortality (of the soul and body) is the most important dogma of the Christian faith, significantly affecting the history of Europe, and indirectly, also the history of mankind. The dominance of Christianity is connected with overcoming the dogma of death: salvation means everlasting life, being a real promise that man can achieve eternal happiness. This understanding of immortality is related to immortality in the individual dimension, i.e. salvation and everlasting life refer to each human individually and can only be achieved in this dimension: Christ saved each person individually, not mankind in general. In Hess’ opinion, Christian emphasis on the individual dimension fundamentally changed the content of the Messianic message drawn by Christianity from Judaism. In the Old Testament, immortality applies rather to the nation than to an individual. It is the nation, people, or community that are subject to the Messianic vision of immortality and salvation; thus, the Jewish belief in immortality is connected with the national/humanistic dimension of Messianism in the form of a general human idea. Its ultimate goal is the coming of the Messiah and the creation of a universal Messianic state.⁸ According to the author, Judaism makes an important proposal to mankind, based on the promise of overcoming death through the execution of God’s state on earth, i.e. the achievement of real happiness here, in the earthly life, unlike in the Christian promise of everlasting life in an obscure other world (“heaven”). The Messianic time is the time of a person’s real, earthly life, understood by Hess in collective, communal categories, devoid of poisonous egoism strengthened by the events and consequences of the French Revolution.⁹ On the one hand, the revolution promoted new ideas of human solidarity, justice and equality and it “moved great nations,” but on ←22 | 23→the other hand, it caused strong opposition and reaction, particularly evident in Germany.¹⁰

I. 2 New Anti-Semitism

The result of the adopted assumptions and historical changes triggered by the French Revolution are two phenomena, which, according to Hess, seem crucial for Jews and mankind. The first one is the popularization of a new type of anti-Semitism, based not on religious content, as in the case of Christianity, but on two other factors. The first of them was the development of race concepts, which Hess identified mostly with the national awareness and the dimension of historical mission, but also with highlighting biological and genetic differences arising from theories based on pseudoscientific concepts of racial differences between people. Another important factor that contributed to the emergence of such anti-Semitism was modern nationalism based on the idea of creating national states, derived from the genetically and historically rooted concept of nation. The middle nineteenth century with the Spring of Nations and fight for the unification of Germany and Italy was a good time to implement the idea of national states and the slogans of the French Revolution: a state was to be the community of free citizens, not the property of a ruler. In these new social conditions, together with a new type of anti-Semitism and nationalism, the situation of Jews also changed, as for the first time in history nearly all of them had an opportunity to actively participate in the new social life through emancipation, which meant that Jews began to be treated as citizens or even members of particular nations. Obviously, such emancipation and assimilation had to take place at the expense of giving up on their Jewishness, and as a result, also on the Diaspora community. This was a dramatic process and full of tensions, which largely contributed to radical behaviors both among Jews and of non-Jewish environment ←23 | 24→toward the Jewish community, which only intensified the anti-Semitism. Hess saw all these phenomena and managed to draw conclusions from them. He perceived the problem of anti-Semitism in an especially innovative way, referring to the area of Germany – familiar to him – because the Ashkenazi Diaspora played the dominant role in the Jewish community in Europe. It was among Germans that Hess noticed particularly strong expressions of the abovementioned anti-Semitic phenomena and the birth of a new national philosophy, resulting in evident pursuits of spiritual and real reunification of the Reich and the formation of a strong national state. Hess defined the phenomenon of German (or more broadly, Germanic) anti-Semitism in new categories, beginning with the attempt to understand the so-called Germanic “pure human nature” based on the awareness of racial distinctness. Therefore, he writes: “The ‘pure human nature’ of the Germans is, in reality, the character of the pure German race, which rises to the conception of humanity in theory only, but in practice it has not succeeded in overcoming the natural sympathies and antipathies of the race.”¹¹ So the author emphasizes that the theoretically approached ideal nature of the nation, including the German nation, should embody the noble ideas of humanism, tolerance, and the dignity of each human, but in practice it refers to much less noble sympathies and antipathies to other nations, peoples or communities, which is especially evident in relation to the Jewish community. In this case, Hess may see more of the antipathetic tendency – the relationships between German communities and their Jewish neighbors is definitely hostile. Hess wants to know what “der deutsche Judenhass” involves, given that other modern nations in Western Europe do not display so much hostility or antipathy to Jews. For him, the foundation of this phenomenon is mostly German aversion to Jewish national ambitions, which could be perceived as a kind of threat within the Reich in that turbulent time of seeking political ways of unification and conscious formation of a strong single nation (ein Volk).¹² Hess presents this in a dichotomous system ←24 | 25→of antagonism of tension in the human nature between different spheres: be it spiritual and natural, or theoretical (speculative, mental) and practical. In the German people, this antagonism is particularly strong, because two tendencies clash in them: on the one hand, the historically and theoretically explained concept of internationalism (fully justified by the history of the German Reich and German culture), and on the other hand, very strong national ambitions, which naturally rejected the Germanic internationalism. Hess emphasizes that this contradiction is a typical German feature.¹³ He writes that German aversion to Jews partially results from fear of the consequences of Jewish nationalism, threatening German independence (reunification) pursuits. He also observes that anti-Semitism in a way is embedded in racial relationships and is largely their effect. German anti-Semitism has strong racial roots and has been consolidated by the German culture. Even Hegel, who can be regarded as Hess’ mentor and teacher, strongly pointed out that Jews were an anachronic relic,¹⁴ which would be removed and annihilated as part of the march of the Spirit of history. According to Hegel, Jews counteract the course of history, and they (as a nation, not individual people) will be annihilated by the dynamism of that history – they have to dissolve in the Germanic nation, the leader and executor of the advancement of the Spirit of history.¹⁵ Hegel’s vision had an impact on Hess, who saw in it the reason for natural German hostility toward Jews. For him, the source of national development is the race, which develops both in the biological and in the cultural sense, though biological determinants in a way control the cultural ones.¹⁶ Obviously, this thinking reflects the socialist idea of superiority of the foundation over the further construction. However, it must be pointed out that although Hess was a socialist, he was far from the solutions proposed by Karl Marx, and as regards the Jewish question, he tended to support the views ←25 | 26→promoted by rabbi Zvi Hirsch Kalischer.¹⁷ This resulted from Hess’ consistent belief in the lack of rational explanation for the phenomenon of anti-Semitism, including German aversion to Jews. In the German case, antipathy is kind of irrational, i.e. it ultimately evades the attempts to rationally (theoretically) define and explain it, and it only leads to the conclusion that German anti-Semitism is based on the “inborn racial antagonism to the Jews” and cannot be overcome in any way.¹⁸ According to Hess, this anti-Semitism is simply embedded in the Jewish-German relationships and, therefore, any attempts to reduce aversion to Jews taken by German Jews, e.g. through cultural and social emancipation or radical actions such as changing their religion and adjusting it to the requirements of the contemporary world cannot give any positive results, because: “The German hates the Jewish religion less than the race; he objects less to the Jews’ peculiar beliefs than to their peculiar noses.”¹⁹ This strong statement sounds ←26 | 27→prophetic now, since we know that one hundred years later in the Nazi Germany, it actually came true with all its atrocity.

This kind of anti-Semitism also has far-reaching consequences for German Jews in the sphere of their actions. First of all, so as to avoid the negative effects of the approach of German community, Jews try to hide their Jewish identity. Both in the religious and the racial dimension (although as I have pointed out, for Hess religion in itself is not the decisive factor in creating the anti-Jewish attitude, but the rituals, and the cultural and social consequences of Judaism, determining the form of the Diaspora, definitely are one), which means that the national approach among German Jews is limited. None of the dramatic or even desperate moves of the Jewish community is able to eliminate anti-Semitism. Hess points out that enforced or “voluntary” conversion or assimilation combined with emancipation, which Jews have done repeatedly since the Middle Ages with the result of rejecting their Jewishness and consequently, being condemned and expelled from the Diaspora, was unsuccessful as well. According to Hess, the reason for this is fundamental: no transformation connected with religious conversion, changing social behaviors and customs or the external environment will compensate for the racial difference reflected even in the anatomy and physical appearance, which cannot be changed. Hess highlights that a Jew will never change his appearance, and that appearance, as a representative of his different race (even if those different anatomical features are not largely based on real physical characteristics but are the result of imaginary stereotypes), will always make him distinct from a German (Aryan). Hess can see the futility of Jewish efforts to become physically similar to the German majority.²⁰ The Jewish race is “primary,” and whatever it means, neither attempts to change the physical appearance or transformations leading to greater social integration can change this obvious truth. Thus, the author critically approaches the attempts to make “radical” changes within Judaism, since they can only lead to the destruction of the primary value of the Jewish race, expressed both in the religious dimension (e.g. through Messianism) and in the national or historical character of the Jewish ritual with the key idea of chosen people (nation). It is not beneficial for Jews in any way. Such attempts reveal the racial tension, because on the one hand, emancipation and assimilation are the Jewish response to the environment’s antipathy ←27 | 28→or hostility, but they only become intensify and radicalize all the negative effects of antipathy toward Jews, which contributes to reinforcing anti-Semitism on a new basis. Hess is convinced that the only possibility to alleviate anti-Semitism, at least in Germany, is for Jews to preserve their own “type,” their race, with all its consequences. The emphasis on the importance and distinctness of the Jewish type (synonymous to the term “race”) was based on Hess’ short quasi historical and scientific analysis of the category of human types.²¹ The author identifies the Indo-European (Indo-German) type, which apart from some anatomical characteristics has a high level of social development and in a way, the mentality of “lords,” unlike the Asian type, which is associated with the mentality of “slaves.”²² Despite some evident differences between the Western Diaspora (mostly from Germany) and the Eastern Diaspora, Jews represent one clear type (race).²³ Hess also points out that specific and positive features of Jewish community made Jews adapt well to the environment in the history, which to some extent made them resistant to the negative influence of the environment, to the expressions of hostility and anti-Semitism, although he can also see some dangers faced all the time ←28 | 29→and intensifying as a result of social changes (mostly as a result of nationalism). Because of them, Jews may be facing the most serious tasks since the beginning of their “exile.” Hess can see a deadly threat of anti-Semitism, which is so deeply rooted in people that it cannot be eradicated using any argumentation and can even lead to “annihilation” (whatever it means) of the whole Jewish community. Therefore, to save, not only Jews but also the whole mankind, Jews need to engage in activities to reform their “internal” life (i.e. their internal community), aimed at assuming their natural historical role.²⁴ Hess presents his postulate of the Messianic-like religious and political concept, in which the main humanity-saving task is vested in the enlightened Jewish community, which was more generally referred to by a researcher studying the issue of political Messianism, J. L. Talmon, as “the expectation of universal regeneration, which revived people and political movements in the first half of the nineteenth century.”²⁵ According to Hess, Jews will fulfill the restoration/revival role very well, mostly because they have been struggling for centuries with expressions of hatred and aggression in the form of various anti-Jewish acts, and they have managed to retain the core of their own religious and social tradition based on hard practical reality. Hess stresses that Jewish patriotism is completely different from the German one, dominated by the ontological justification and involving discussions between the mutually exclusive approaches of philosophical realism and idealism. Jewish patriotism and sense of nationality have nothing in common either with realism or with idealism. Judaism mostly highlights the tradition of religiously rooted Messianic vision, not based on abstract cosmopolitan categories but rather on the reference to a specific situation of the chosen nation and its role in the salvation mission on the earth. From this perspective, for Hess, religion actually equals Jewish patriotism, allowing Jews to preserve their own humanity and additionally restore the whole mankind in the Messianic humanistic message.²⁶ ←29 | 30→In his view, Judaism is against various visions of spiritual egoism and materialistic individualism, which in a negative sense greatly fuels e.g. the new type of anti-Semitism. Thus, Judaism is free from the antinomy of dualism of spirit and matter, consuming the Christianity and causing tragic consequences. This fact can provide sufficient basis for the right to lead philosophical and national restoration, desired and expected by nations.²⁷

I. 3 Jews as Revivers of the Nations

The main message of Hess’ deliberations was the belief in the advent of the Messianic age, in which Jews would play the decisive role. In the beginning of the “Fifth Letter” of Rome and Jerusalem, he reminds that he had already discussed the issue of Messianism in his earlier books.²⁸ The author is aware that Jews have found themselves in a particularly hard historical situation: in turbulent times of social transformations, tensions, and national conflicts. French, German, and Italian people expect clear signs of loyalty from Jews living in their territories. No Jewish hopes for integration as part of emancipation had positive effects, and the very process of emancipation only brought Jews new problems. A new type of anti-Semitism has intensified, driven by stereotypes but also new national content. So as to solve all these problems, a proper diagnosis was necessary. But how to achieve it? Hess can only see one solution to the situation: first of all, Jews must consider themselves as a nation, because only as a nation can they be treated equally to other nations: “As long as the Jew endeavors to deny his nationality, while at the same time he is unable to deny his own individual existence, as long ←30 | 31→as he is unwilling hat he belongs to that unfortunate and persecuted people, his false position must daily become more intolerable. Wherefore the illusion? The European nations have always considered the existence of Jews in their midst as an anomaly. We shall always remain strangers among the nations.”²⁹ Jews must themselves destroy the stereotype that they are unable to make a distinct, powerful nation. The stereotype that Jews regard as their home (lost irreversibly as a result of exile) any place where they feel good in accordance with the principle ubi bene ibi patria – “Homeland is there where life is good” – definitely did not help improve Jews’ situation.

Hess can see the danger of the emancipation process, even if it is treated positively as an attempt from the non-Jewish environment to help Jews in quicker assimilation and improvement of their social status.³⁰ According to Hess, Jews who underwent emancipation at the same time excluded themselves from the community in the national sense, because as they became townspeople, they also made a naturalization attempt, rejecting their roots or even becoming zealous anti-Semites, perceiving the slandering of their former brothers as an opportunity to please their new friends. But the effects of such activities are contrary to intentions, because – as the author observes – the hatred for Jews, in a way natural in the environment (often based on religious fanaticism) and intensified by their own attitude, which in many cases only causes contempt against them, will not be annihilated in any process of emancipation and social integration. ←31 | 32→Hess declares directly: “In spite of enlightenment and emancipation, the Jew in exile who denies his nationality will never earn the respect of the nations among whom he dwells. He may become a naturalized citizen, but he will never be able to convince the gentiles of his total separation from his own nationality.”³¹ This image cannot be covered by any non-Jewish declarations of a change in the attitude and overcoming the negative attitude to Judaism as such. Hess is convinced that nothing can change in this regard. The beautiful declarations made to Jews in the name of lofty ideas of universal humanity and enlightenment, respect for human rights etc. should not pull the wool over Jews’ eyes. According to the author, for many emancipated Jews, they serve as an alibi for their own unacceptable conduct toward the Diaspora. Actually, as Hess describes behaviors oriented at the emancipation and social integration, he writes about a treason on the part of all those who do so. The traitor Jews lose their honor, try to mask their roots and hide their religion, to become someone incognito, someone who can develop their attitude anew. Shortly speaking, they do anything not to be recognized as Jews, thus defiling the honor of the whole Jewish community.³²

All these thoughts produced Hess’ image of the Jewish community even when – as he points out – he actively participated in the creation and development of the socialist idea.³³ Even at that time, he believed in the Messianic idea, which translated into a specific kind of socialism, different from the scientific socialism represented by Marx.³⁴ That Messianic belief was for Hess the basic ←32 | 33→category necessary to build the concept of Jewish national revival, and more broadly, causing the progress and restoration of human history.³⁵ Hess makes a few comments on Christianity, pointing out that it has played a positive role, directing people toward the great goal defined by Judaism as the advent of the Messianic era. Although Christians believed that the Messianic era had come and the Messiah (Jesus Christ) had already saved mankind, according to Hess, the history did not confirm this view. Thus, Christianity proved to be just a stage leading up to the Messianic era and was not the finis historiae – the age in which the holy history of mankind was completed. Christianity only took mankind from the dark ancient times to modern times, and by popularizing the idea of Messianism, it evoked universal yearning for the period of happiness. But it was also the religion of death, because in Christianity salvation and eternal life only applied to individuals, not meeting Hess’ criteria. The only real flee from death is Judaism and its concept of general, not individual, immortality – eternal existence of peoples and nations in the state of the Messiah, Erec Izrael. The historic role of Christianity ended at the moment of restoration of nations to a new life. Thus, Christianity fulfilled its historic (in other word, “Messianic”) mission.³⁶ ←33 | 34→According to Hess, the latest three hundred years’ period in Europe’s history was sufficient witness of accuracy of his diagnosis concerning the decline of the historic role of Christianity: on the ruins of “Rome,” a new world was created with the idea of free nations shedding the chains of “death.” Hess clearly glorifies the French Revolution, which hatched the “soldiers of civilization, … gradually sweeping away the dominance of the barbarians; and with their strong Herculean arms will roll off the tombstones from the graves of the supposedly dead peoples and the nations will reawaken once more.”³⁷ But according to the author, the healthy tissue of the nation survived thanks to Jews dwelling in all the corners of the Christian and Islamic world. Hess distinguishes between Jews living in the region where Islam meets Christianity and Jews living in the West. In the former, he can see sticking to the original healthy religious dogmas, reflected in unwavering faith and conviction of the coming of the Messianic era: the formation of the state of Israel and the saving mission of the Messiah. In his opinion, this provides an opportunity to awaken Jewish nationalism. The situation was different among the Western Jewry, who by departure from the Jewish faith and culture lost their hope and the attitude of waiting for the Messianic era. Therefore, reform was necessary to restore the spiritual and social life in the West. This task was fulfilled by the father of Jewish enlightenment, Moses Mendelssohn, who through Haskalah blew a new spirit in the Western Jewry, giving them hope for national revival. Mendelssohn combined the tradition of rabbis and religious prophets with modern social transformations initiated with the French Revolution.³⁸ According to Hess, this is the real national renaissance ←34 | 35→linking tradition with modernity. The true awakening of nations, including the Jewish nation, is taking place just now, leading to the Messianic era.³⁹

I. 4 Judaism: Religion of the Future

Further, Hess moves on to analyze the essence of Judaism in order to specify its mission.⁴⁰ First of all, he stresses the obvious fact of two thousand years of Jews’ permanent isolation – living in ghettos, most of them are completely closed to the external world, which has certain consequences. The consequences are twofold, both negative and positive. On the one hand, Jews’ isolation leads to their far-reaching alienation, which means that for non-Jewish environment they are strange, and this has always been good fuel for strengthening various stereotypes, especially when they have a strong religious basis. Christianity, which originated from the Jewish religion but positioned itself as a strong opponent of Judaism and developed its main dogmas by negating the sense and essence of traditional Hebrew monotheism, consolidated in tradition the negative stereotype of a Jew-Pharisee. Traditional Christian anti-Judaism definitely aroused in many Christians the aversion to Jews as those who rejected the Messiah (in the ←35 | 36→mild version) or those who were responsible for the death of Christ, and thus condemned and rightly suffering. There is no doubt that Jews to a certain degree contributed themselves to that negative image, because an important element being the basis of Judaism was perceiving the tragedy of exile from the perspective of the right punishment for their own sins. Another factor reinforcing all those tendencies is the very character of the Jewish religion, with its rituals and strict rules hard to understand for non-Jewish environment.⁴¹

But in these characteristic Hess can also see a positive aspect of Judaism, because Jews’ isolation and closing in a ghetto allowed them to preserve all that was the most important, i.e. the already highlighted essential elements of their faith, for example the common indifferentism of Judaism, significant in the context of transformations of the contemporary world. Judaism appears to the author as the religion of life, overcoming death, and thus able to implement the idea of universal humanism. At the same time, the author criticizes many attempts to reform Judaism that have been made for centuries, because in his opinion, they always went in the direction of making Judaism similar to Christianity and actually were influenced by that religion, without focusing on the specific character of the Jewish religion.⁴² Jews survived in ghettos without creating a caste of priests and their servants, which according to Hess was extremely important, because it prevented serious social tensions present in the external world, which consolidate the injustice of social life and generally contempt for other people. According to him, Judaism managed to avoid all those negative phenomena and even reduce them by including Jewish content in all the expressions of social life. Hess can see many such motifs in culture and science.⁴³ He also comments on the attempts to reform both Christianity (referring to the example of Martin Luther)⁴⁴ and Judaism (Moses Mendelssohn and his enlightenment-Haskalah). ←36 | 37→Hess can see positive aspects of these reformatory attempts, but he can also see their negative effects, which mostly result from the approach characteristic of these reforms – they always have a negative attitude to the reformed content, i.e. they reject the present state of their religions and consider them to be detrimental. They strongly advocate rejecting all that has been achieved so far and creating something new (or returning to sources, which seems to be a delusion, since the “sources” are simply the present idea of what a certain religion should look like, yet always perceived from the contemporary perspective). Therefore, Hess mentions a crisis of reforms made within Judaism and their dangerous consequences for the Jewish community: “Our reformers, on the contrary, attempted to reform the basis itself. Their reforms have only a negative purpose – if they have any aim at all – to firmly establish unbelief in the national foundation of the Jewish religion. No wonder that these reforms only fostered indifference to Judaism and conversions to Christianity.”⁴⁵ Any reformation attempts also caused great damage to Christianity, which according to Hess ultimately lost its chance for the “national character,” oppressed by the malady of materialism and spiritualism.⁴⁶ The result of contestation of this state was new movements appearing on the basis of some philosophical concepts oriented at the creation of the “religion of the future” – religion that must revive the spirit of faith anew, this time originating from national roots.⁴⁷ In this meaning, Hess could see the role of the whole religious reformation tradition, which in his opinion initiated the process of peoples regaining their national awareness, the sense of being a nation. For him, the religion of the future will be the national religion, and he can see a positive role of Judaism, cultivating for ages the belief in the chosen nation.⁴⁸ As a result, the chosen nation will involve all the peoples that create ←37 | 38→their own national religion based on the historical myth or worship of the nation. The author notices this phenomenon in the contemporary national tendencies, because the development of national awareness as a social process has the form of a new religious movement, or even a secular religious form (including elements of old pagan cults, such as the worship of Nature). Thus, secular religion would be the product (and negation) of the confrontation of materialism and spiritualism, what is individual and what is general. Hess defines and sums up this phenomenon like this: “It therefore must continue to suffer from internal dissensions arising from the constant clash of irreconcilable principles, until it is finally replaced among the regenerated nations by a new historical cult. To this coming cult, Judaism alone holds the key. This ‘religion of the future’ of which the eighteenth-century philosophers, as well as their recent followers, dreamed, will neither be an imitation of the ancient pagan Nature cult, nor a reflection of the neo-Judaism skeleton, the specter of which haunts the minds of our religious reformers. Each nation will have to create its own historical cult; each people must become, like the Jewish people, a people of God.”⁴⁹

Hess sees the liveliness of the Jewish faith in the fact that it is resistant to national and humanitarian movements of the modern era, which are a great ←38 | 39→danger to religion in general. Judaism wins the confrontation with modernity and national challenges, because these movements are simply a primitive return or reference to the very essence of Judaism, but they do not contain its philosophical or religious depth.⁵⁰ In this respect, the Jewish religion proves to be stronger than other religions. According to Hess, for example Christianity was weakened because the proper experience of life got dissolved in the dogma of faith. The author disagrees with Mendelssohn’s opinion that in Judaism, there is no dogma and that the reform should involve its restoration (establishment).⁵¹ Hess thinks that the problem of Judaism lies somewhere else, not in the lack of strong dogmas which would determine the skeleton of faith. The strength of Judaism is the constant reference to God and looking for the way to know and experience Him. Jews maintained an important aspect of religious experience based on diligent study of God’s Word and emphasizing God’s unity and singularity in the world (monotheism). All this is part of the absolute obligation of each Jew, which cannot be renounced by any external circumstances. For Hess, this attitude is resistant to any unwholesome reform attempts, abounding in philosophical concepts since the enlightenment period, which along with the clear glorification of reason considered any expressions of traditional religion ←39 | 40→as the “opium for the masses,” as remarked generally by Karl Marx.⁵² Obviously, the author notices that Judaism too is full of various reforming attempts, referring to the blowing of a “new spirit.” But all these reform attempts were treated like heresies, not having anything in common with the essence of the Jewish faith, and hence, in the Diaspora all these tendencies were strongly opposed and condemned by rabbis guarding the true cult.⁵³ From this perspective, according to Hess, Judaism is a natural basis for nationalism, in which the most important aspect of the proper experience of faith was never lost in history: “A Jew belongs to his race and consequently also to Judaism, in spite of the fact that he or his ancestors have become apostates. It may appear paradoxical, according to our modern religious opinions, but in life, at least, I have observed this view to be true. The converted Jew remains a Jew no matter how much he objects to it. At present, there is but little difference between the enlightened and the converted Jew. My friend, Armond L., whose grandfather had already been converted, is more interested in Jewish affairs than many a circumcised Jew, and he has preserved his faith in Jewish nationality more faithfully than our enlightened rabbis.”⁵⁴ So, in Hess’ opinion, being a Jew is inborn and conversion does not has to cause a heresy and departure from the true sense of the Jewish faith. In Judaism, there is only the phenomenon of apostasy, but does not have to always lead to the denial of the essence of Judaism either. Hess proposes another approach to this phenomenon, which does not need to automatically lead to heresy. The author refers to his concept of race, which characterizes both the physical and mental affiliation, together with the cultural encumbrance. The expression of the race is the sense of national identity, on the basis of which modern nationalism can be ←40 | 41→built. In this respect, Judaism has everything that is necessary for the achievement of this postulate – and this is its strength.

Each nation has its own national culture. As for Jews, their culture originates from its own national content. For this reason, Jews’ attitude to the cultures of other nations among which they live can only be superficial and no process of assimilation and emancipation can change it. At the same time, according to Hess, Judaism is changing internally also under the influence of historical changes in the environment. The author is convinced that these changes are the consequence of the necessary historical process, which involves three eras important for the Jewry. The first one was the development of the Jewish law after the exodus from Egypt, when a new covenant was made with God and the proper form of Judaism was achieved through Moses. The second important era of law development was the period after the Babylonian captivity, when Jews, though not all, returned to Palestine. This was the time of the Diaspora formation and the development of Jewish social life in two areas: one in Palestine, and the other, which has actually remained till the modern times, was life in the Diaspora, out of the Promised Land. Hess expresses the view that currently the time is coming for the third great era, which will be the time of liberating Jews from the third exile. He criticizes the condition of the Jewry as a consequence of phenomena occurring in the second one, because no reforms introduced by rabbis referred to the real spirit of Judaism, so the leaders of the Jewish nation fail to understand the real essence of Judaism and the fossilized orthodoxy based on inertia and conservatism is becoming even stronger. According to Hess, most rabbis fail to see the real essence of the problem of reform. In the time of revolutionary changes and the development of national awareness, Judaism faces the task of joining the key reformers, which in a way also accomplishes the religious postulate of proselytism, which – although rejected by Jews long ago (actually, the universal proselytism was adopted by Christianity from Judaism) – must be revived now.⁵⁵ For Hess, Judaism has beautiful national and philosophical tradition, which can serve as an excellent foundation for new reforms. The history of Jews, even since the ancient times, has abounded in examples of heroic fighters for national liberation, and for two thousand years, also the hope for return from exile and national restoration.⁵⁶ Jewish pursuits could be threatened by the ←41 | 42→traditional oral transmission of rules (Oral Torah), which made Judaism prone to many interpretations, including false ones. The author means particularly the metaphorical meaning of the so-called oral tradition, which fossilized too much around the exclusive worship of the Book alone, thus, becoming a cliquish field inaccessible for the majority and no longer shaping the significant spirit of national awareness among Jews. But this threat is the thing of the past, and the whole reformatory focus and effort should be oriented at restoring the national tradition through the worship of national heroes from the past and building the Jewish national myth on that basis.⁵⁷ This is the task for contemporary reformers. Hess underlines that it is necessary to arouse in Jews again the long forgotten and repressed national pride based on the belief about the importance of the Jewish religion for whole mankind, and on the conviction of the importance of the covenant made between God and the chosen nation, which is the representative of the whole mankind with universal humanism in view. The author observes that the greatness of Judaism lies in its sources: Jews became the chosen nation, it was them that God made the great covenant with, and they serve the significant role of representatives of humanity. This gives Jews certain privileges as the leaders of all people, but it also makes them face the great challenge of leading the whole progress and reforming the whole mankind so as to achieve the idea of humanity and universal humanitarianism. Hess is sure that the consequence of Jews accepting this challenge will be the coming of the third epoch of liberation, resulting in the coming of a new era and the restoration of the Jewish state.⁵⁸

←42 | 43→

Further, Hess refers to the current condition of Judaism, pointing out that in Judaism, just like in the whole surrounding world, two opposing tendencies are dominant. Both tendencies are a response to the social changes initiated by the French Revolution and the overturning of the previous social life order, but also by the new approach to the world and a human. The only tendency Hess evaluates critically is the dramatic attempt to save the faith by protecting its naïve traditional “old” form. According to the author, it is simply an unreflective attempt to turn back the history and a dramatic response to negative tendencies of the contemporary world, first of all involving highlighted the issue of nihilism and alienation as the consequence of the changes.⁵⁹ Hess strongly criticizes this approach, claiming it is very dangerous and not only fails to perform the historical ←43 | 44→role of Judaism but also prevents it.⁶⁰ It has triggered the response of opponents, whom the author identifies with the second tendency associated with reform attempts occurring in contemporary Judaism. Those reforms are usually made as a negative response to the opposite view, and thus, as Hess stresses, reformers go the wrong way, because practically each of them proposes his own way of reform, which means extensive fragmentation, not to say chaos, with no consistent vision that could convince Jews and change the life of the Jewish Diaspora. Hess argues that all reforms made in this spirit are ineffective, because they basically prove to be not very relevant in the context of quick social changes. They lack the vision of historical dynamism in identifying the core of the Jewish religion and culture, which would ensure the desired effects of the reform.⁶¹

A reformative tendency similar to the one Hess observed in the German Jewry is also visible in the circle of French Jews, although the French Diaspora functions in a different reality. For the author, a classic example of reformative utopia in the French community is the mission of Joseph Salvador. Salvador states (and Hess agrees with him) that despite some distinct behaviors, French Judaism involves some inclinations to combine various historical cults and incorporate them as a part of reform by the old orthodox faith. Salvador himself is an excellent example of the consequences of such a view. Hess writes skeptically that Salvador arouses in Jews the desire to return to Jerusalem, he promotes the slogan of establishing the Jewish state (or something resembling one) with the new Jerusalem, but the means he proposes to use in order to achieve this are insufficient and may even be deadly for the Jewry. In conclusion, he makes the following comments on Salvador’s concept: “If I understand the author correctly, he expects his New ←44 | 45→Jerusalem to become the world capital of the fusionists. Salvador, furthermore, seems to cherish the curious idea that the Jews ought first to turn Christians, so that they may be the better able to convert the Christians afterward to Judaism. This work is, in reality, not as new as Salvador thinks; it began eighteen hundred years ago. It seems, however, that the Judaism of which Salvador is thinking is as new as his Christianity.”⁶² So, Hess evaluates Salvador’s concept negatively, arguing the author is not very knowledgeable, either about Judaism or about Christianity. All this reeks of a completely utopian vision of reform, not only of Judaism, but through it, also of whole mankind (or at least Christianity) and stands no chance of success.

According to Hess, Judaism should approach itself otherwise than the abovementioned reform proposals and concepts do. He argues that the reform should by no means relate Judaism with any other religion (especially Christianity), even if it has the same roots as Judaism. Judaism finds many arguments for preserving its tradition and dogmas without any conversion to Christianity, just like Christianity finds many arguments for remaining Christian. Hess is sure that the reform and confrontation of the two religions shows the advantage of Judaism, and centuries of existence of the two religions have proved that Christianity should learn tolerance and harmonious coexistence of different denominations from the Jewish faith. Judaism is a religion of tolerance and respect for human dignity, whereas in the case of Christianity, it has never been so obvious.⁶³

Hess can see positive strength in the Jewish religion, allowing Judaism to avoid the mistakes of Christianity. In addition, the change in Jews’ position resulting from socio-political transformations creates a new situation for them and for their religion. By appreciating industrialization and the mercantile content of the transformations characteristic of the peoples and nations surrounding Jews, Judaism is able to achieve its goals of spiritual revival and preach the ideals of humanity and humanism, thus highlighting in the Indo-Germanic race (type) all ←45 | 46→that is the best in it.⁶⁴ So, Judaism has a philosophical mission to carry out. But what does the mission involve in Hess’ view?

First of all, he stresses that for Jews the force governing their lives and activities in the past has ended. The new mission of the Jewish nation will be to save the world from fanaticism and negative superstitions, also concerning Jews themselves. To perform this mission, the great idea of Judaism must be fulfilled: Jews must return to Zion and restore the Jewish state. All the effort of the Diaspora should focus on this goal in two aspects: religious (from the beginning connected with the tradition of Judaism) but also sociophilosophical. The fact that Hess set such a goal actually makes him one of the precursors of modern Zionism.⁶⁵

Hess acknowledges that Judaism, as the “elder brother,” has a kind of obligation with respect to Christianity to direct it toward reform and enlightenment of faith, which in its proper form should be based on tolerance and the rejection of any fanaticism.⁶⁶ At the same time, he is convinced that such reform is the only way to achieve the goal of enlightened Jewry. Any other orthodoxy and the lack ←46 | 47→of openness to new postulates dooms Jews to serious confrontation, first of all with Christianity: confrontation which can have only negative consequences for Jews, because they are a minority in the ocean of Christian majority, which – as the history has shown many times – can act ruthlessly and brutally against Jews. For Hess, the danger of such a deadly confrontation also occurs now, which can be proved e.g. by the new type of anti-Semitism. For Judaism, it most generally means spiritual death, complete conversion, and ultimately, total annihilation of the Diaspora, which symptoms are assimilation and emancipation. Hess reminds the readers that the assimilation of the Jewry is practically infeasible, and a Jew will always remain a Jew, whatever he does and whatever steps he takes to change it.⁶⁷

I. 5 The Basis of the Jewish Reform

As has already been mentioned, Hess criticizes all previous reform attempts within Judaism, both internal and external. The criticism has different intensity with regard to different concepts of reforms. The author absolutely rejects reforms going beyond the area of Judaism (for example Salvador’s concept) or ones that blur Judaism in the universal idea of humanity, basically proposing complete rejection of faith in favor of an obscure idea of humanism as part of the great human family. All this leads to the destruction of Jewish life and Jewish identity.⁶⁸ Hess doubts the honesty and meaningfulness of this, because he suspects it is related too much with the appeal (popular in some circles) to “convert” Jews to the only truth and as a result redeem the sin committed against the Savior. In Christianity, the blind synagogue should regain eyesight and believe in the Messiah: the mission of Judaism was fulfilled at the moment of coming of Christ, and by rejecting the Savior, Jews keep sinning and need to be saved from the sin, even if against their will. In Hess’ opinion, the idea of universal humanity is grist for the mill of such radical views.⁶⁹

←47 | 48→

But the reform proposed by the author was to be completely different. The essence of his proposal seems to be the combination of the universal idea of humanity and the precise national concept. According to Hess, nation is an indispensable part of the society and humanism, to the extent that without a nation and national awareness it is impossible to build proper and fair interpersonal relationships based on the universal principle of equality and human dignity, that is, all that is included in the essence of humanism. The author believes that humanism approached this way is also the essence of Judaism: “I believe that not only does the national essence of Judaism not exclude civilization and humanitarianism, but that the latter really follow from it, as necessarily as the result follows from the cause. If, in spite of this, I emphasize the national side of Judaism, which is the root, rather than the humanitarian aspect, which is the bloom and flower, it is because in pour time, people are prone to decorate themselves with the flowers of culture rather than cultivate them again in the soil on which they grew. It is out of Judaism that our humanitarian view of life sprang.”⁷⁰ So, Hess is convinced about the fundamental role of Judaism in the general history of humanity. Judaism is the source of the philosophical ideas of humanism and the formation of a new culture. At the same time, it represents the total religion, whose totality is included in the essence of the covenant between God and human, represented by the chosen nation, Israel. In Hess’ interpretation, the religious idea of the covenant between God and man has a secular character: history is the representation of the Jewish belief in a historical mission. Thanks to Judaism, the history of mankind is in a way “sanctified” – it is a holy history. The history became more dynamic at the moment of the Jewish exile, and according to the author, all that had occurred since then (after the failure of ←48 | 49→the Bar Kokhba Revolt) until his time was only another face of the manifestation of Jewish humanism. The author believes that the moral teaching of Christianity and the reformatory ideas, and changes caused by the French Revolution, are only the implementation and dynamic popularization of principles present in Judaism from the beginning. Hess particularly emphasizes the growing awareness of humanism connected with treating mankind as one big collective. From this perspective, mankind should make one big family like a great organism made up of individual members. From this organic approach, the sense of humanism is only expressed in living in a community, like all members that can only exist as parts of the whole but lose their sense when separated. This significant statement by Hess who approaches the society and nation as parts of the organic whole also shapes the sense of mission and goal that humans have. In this concept, nations make the communis, and from this perspective, they are all equal and equally important (necessary), and any antagonisms between them and tendencies to dominate over other nations, often resulting from unequal treatment of some groups, only cause disturbances in the normal course of history, because they are detrimental to the communis. Even greater danger lies in any anti-national and reactive movements. For Hess, all of them seriously hamper the promotion of progress and the development of the proper humanitarian attitude. Hess can see a historic task for Jews, who for centuries, in spite of many dangers and practically under constant threat, have been able to preserve the humanistic attitude by continually stressing the sacral aspect of interpersonal relations, based on the covenant made between God and man, which as a result gives meaning to all human actions.⁷¹

When outlining the history of mankind, Hess openly refers to the concepts originating from the observation of natural life, fashionable at the time. Generally, both in the natural world and among animals, there is a permanent fight for survival, in which the weaker element perishes and the stronger remains. The history of humankind has been very similar, though it had an element that does not occur in the world of nature. This element driving and, in a way, determining human activity was the ultimate goal of mankind, i.e. universal fusion – creating an entire organism made up of different parts (members) influencing each other which can only exist within this entirety. For Hess, the history of humanity is naturally understandable, in a way automatic, covering both the sphere of human biological and social life,⁷² with natural permanent ←49 | 50→rivalry, or war. However, building the sphere of his social life, man is able to partially anticipate the state of permanent conflict and introduce the creative state of peace, beneficial for everyone. But this requires the combination and fusion of cultures. As part of the fusion, different human races (types⁷³) which normally compete with each other are no longer adverse opponents but indispensable members of the humanistic whole – human communis. Hess perceives history as the process of fusion of different human races. At the same time, this process, in modern times initiated by the French Revolution, ultimately destroyed the idea (present since the Middle Ages) of universalism based exclusively on religious belonging to the great community of christianitas and ignoring any divisions into nations, i.e. anti-national. According to Hess, that utopian vision of unity in anti-national universalism proved to be just an idealistic dream, not having anything in common with the real mechanism of social life. That is why in the modern times it has been discredited together with weakening the role of religion and the Church in social life.⁷⁴ Social universalism must, therefore, be based on accepting the diversity of human races (types), and individual nations which together make a humanistic organism are parts of it.

The vision of mankind presented by Hess has a cosmic dimension: “Like the general universal cosmic life which finds its termination in it, and the individual microcosmic life in which all buds and fruits of the spirit finally ripen, Humanity is a living organism, of which races and peoples are the members. In every organism, changes are continually going on. Some, quite prominent in the embryonic stage, disappear in the later development. There are organs, on the other hand, hardly noticeable in the earlier existence of the organism, which become important only when the organism reaches the end of its development.”⁷⁵ ←50 | 51→Using analogies to the growing organism, the author describes social history in which at particular stages of development/maturation of humanity, just like in the case of an organism, some members (nations) gain considerable advantage over others in early stages of maturation, growing stronger and even exceeding their natural shape as part of the whole organism. In this sense, they begin to considerably dominate other nations, and history seems to the author to be full of examples of such nations “expanded” at a certain stage of history. This vision is the vision promoted by Hegel, or whom history is the procession of the Spirit, represented by particular peoples (nations): first Greeks, then Romans, and finally Germans. But while basically agreeing with Hegel’s concept, Hess perceives the dominance of some peoples over others as the immaturity or the whole human organism. However, this organism is characterized by a constant process of maturation, which is gradually removing those outgrowths which are disproportionate from its perspective and not harmonizing with others, leading to the achievement of proper development of the total normal maturation of all the members, i.e. all the nations making the entirety of humanitarian communitas. According to Hess, the stage of humanity reaching the proper state of growth is taking place in his time, and the author assigns a significant role in this maturation to Jews with their culture and religion. The Jewish nation has amazing livelihood and resistance to the maladies consuming mankind. In the whole history of European races, it was Jews that preserved their identity all the time, resisting the winds of history, which blew out many others, seemingly permanently dominant, nations/peoples. In the humanistic organism the Jewish nation is the creative force and power, which according to the author, it shares equally with the German one.⁷⁶ Both nations currently have something that is the flywheel of all the changes and the growth of the organism of humanity: freedom and progress. Mankind matures to freedom and is characterized by constant progress in the dynamism of transformations. With the French Revolution, history first revealed in the universal awareness the right to freedom, and freedom became in this dimension an indispensable element of all social changes. These changes, in turn, always lead to progress, and history is constant growth – there is no place for regression or return to what has already been. Hess cannot accept conservatism in this regard. Progress and freedom become a challenge faced by mankind and contribute to the creation of a modern concept of nation, because with the formation of the nation, progress and freedom reach ←51 | 52→their most mature form.⁷⁷ The history of mankind is always connected with the dichotomy of freedom, which man desires and which makes their essence, and the opposite necessity present in the world surrounding man. Freedom cannot be reconciled with necessity: they are mutually exclusive. This problem mostly refers to men, because on the one hand, they are related to the necessary laws of nature, which determine his biological life, and thus, a human must meet their physiological needs simply to sustain their living functions. But on the other hand, man seems a free creature, endowed with free will, which is in its essence completely autonomous – in this sense, being human is fulfilled in the postulate of being free. An expression of human freedom is the sphere of social life and interpersonal relations, in which the freedom of action based on the will (desire) and the necessity resulting from nature constantly confront each other. Hess can see this conflict also in the contemporary times, when it has the form of, among others, discussion referring to the dilemma of humanism and humanity vs nationalism. In the pattern in which the necessity-based character of all interpersonal relations dominates, the primary assumption is that human activities are not determined by a moral factor driving man to engage in certain actions but rather based on internal natural power subjected to universal, cosmic laws and rules. As Hess emphasizes, it greatly affects the formation of the concept of organic approach of humanity. Humanity as a natural organism is subject to natural cosmic laws that fully determine its activities. The author calls this concept natural pure fatalism, in which the history of individual people follows the laws and rules that also refer to the whole world and do not differ at all from the global history. Human life subjected to natural worldly laws goes on in the same rhythm as the “life” of the whole universe, which excludes any freedom of action and reduces any morality. This vision of humanism and humanity is essentially amoral and slavish (due to the exclusion of freedom).⁷⁸ Hess finds it hard to agree with such total fatalism, because it practically reduces the essence of human to their physical (physiological) dimension, treating any moral and ethical aspects of their attitudes and activities as meaningless: human activity is ←52 | 53→determined physiologically, not morally, and cannot be assessed from the moral point of view. The opposite concept treats humanity as an autonomous form, completely independent of the world of nature, which coexists with the external world and in a way is related to it, but this relationship does not determine the essence of humanity and all human activities. In such a vision of a human, the laws of nature also apply, but apart from them, there is an area of freedom, and people are free in what they do. In the general dimension of development of social life, humanity as a natural organism has reached the level of development at which they have practically made themselves independent from the world of nature and its determinants; the natural fatalism of the world has virtually no impact on mankind and does not contribute to any advancement of humanity. Development assumes freedom and morality, which are the basis for building any humanitarian and national attitudes of individuals. In this vision, Hess can see the special importance of religion, which has always formed the appropriate moral attitudes, fostering development and progress. Judaism is unique in this aspect, because it emphasizes this moral aspect with particular strength and – what seems of key importance – absolutely derives moral laws from the divine source. Human’s morality and freedom grow out of the covenant with God, they are God’s gift. Thus, first, they go beyond the natural order of the world, because they do not have an essential relation to the laws of nature and do not grow out of them; second, they make the sphere of human activity sacred, justifying freedom as a necessary condition of the achievement of humanity as such.⁷⁹

In Judaism, the spheres of the sacred and the profane overlap, and first of all, are not in permanent conflict but harmoniously coexist. God gives meaning to moral laws and morality itself and from this perspective, also to human life and activity. Humanity as an organism and all its members (nations) always have the moral aspect, and the awareness of moral activity refers to the covenant between man and God, resulting in the emergence of the chosen nation with its mission concerning whole mankind. Jews with their religion – the religion of “moral” covenant – perfectly fit the concept of a fatalist understanding of social life, that is, the socialist understanding of humanity.⁸⁰ Still, despite implementing ←53 | 54→the moral message of humanity, religion – especially the Jewish one – is not the only candidate to morally justify human existence. Analyzing history, the author points out that religion has developed in constant confrontation with philosophy and science, which have also aspired to the role of moral guide of humanity. It has often been the case that the paths of philosophy and religion clearly parted and were in permanent conflict, which was evident even in the ancient times and in the Middle Ages. Theoretical disputes concerning, among others, human morality, were based on divisions and particular interests of races and social classes making the “organic” structure of the society. In other words, the development of humanity was uneven, with the excessive growth of certain “organs,” as Hess stated in the quotation above. Misunderstandings between religion and philosophy caused misunderstandings with reference to concepts such as “freedom” and “progress,” which we are still using unreflectively and mechanically. So, Hess first specifies how to understand the terms of freedom and progress.

The belief in reasonableness, and hence the recognizable (cognizable) divine law, which was proposed to mankind through science and history, the belief in divine providence and a plan of creation, is by no means blind belief in obscure coincidence, although it is hard to deny the existence of self-will and lawlessness. According to the author, the materialistic vision of the world makes the fundamental mistake. Yet, the mistake does not involve linking the spiritual, metal world of human with the mechanically approached nature of the universe. Actually, man is related to the world around him, and these relationships cannot be broken. But Hess disagrees with the direction of this relationship, i.e. with materialists assuming its definite unilaterality; matter affects the spirit and shapes and determines it, whereas the existence of the spiritual sphere – and thus, the social and cultural sphere and products of the human spirit (mentality and soul) built on the material, physical basis. So, in this relationship, it is the material, natural world that influences the spiritual world, and naturally, mechanical work determines the world of nature, and human and spiritual world. Hess, however, approaches this issue differently, as he writes: “I do not assert, with the materialists, that the organic and spiritual world is subjected, like the inorganic world, to the same laws as an external mechanism. On the contrary, I affirm that cosmic mechanical phenomena have the same plan, the same purposiveness, and spring out of the same sacred life as organic and spiritual phenomena. Nature and humanity are subordinated to the same divine law. The difference is, that Nature follows this law blindly, while man, when perfectly developed, obeys ←54 | 55→it consciously and voluntarily.”⁸¹ So the author may see the relationship between nature and spirit not in the fact that nature determines the spirit but that both spheres are linked by general, transcendent laws given by God, and the difference between them is that humans obey those laws consciously and nature does so unconsciously. Being a sapient creature, man is able to observe divine laws, because he understands that it is necessary and good for his nature, and if so, he prefers to act in accordance with divine laws, which activates his will and desire to fulfil them.

This is one aspect of revealing of freedom and progress. Another aspect of the approach to freedom and progress is associated by Hess with a much more important difference between man (spirit) and nature. In his opinion, failure to perceive this difference has led to erroneous interpretations of both freedom and progress. “Another important difference, the non-observance of which gives rise to a misunderstanding of the concepts of “Freedom” and “Progress,” lies in this that while the natural sphere of life of the organic and cosmic world, which is the basis of our social, human sphere of life, has already accomplished its own development, humanity is still in the midst of its life-creating process. As long as human society is still occupied in the production of its own organism, man, in his creative capacity, considers himself as an irresponsible and unfettered being, although he, like Nature, in subordinated, in his very creation, to the eternal divine laws.”⁸² So according to the author, the erroneous understanding ←55 | 56→of freedom (or rejecting it completely) results from the fact that mankind has not yet achieved its full development, which means that remaining in the state of development, human community was not able to achieve the full awareness of their freedom, and thus they could not fully use their will. According to Hess, that incomplete state of social (spiritual) development leads to a false understanding of freedom treated as self-will determining human actions. Freedom cannot be self-will, because a self-willed man is one that lacks the awareness of his limitations, i.e. being subject to higher, transcendent laws, and the lack of such awareness results in attempts to do things beyond the natural capabilities of humans. Ignoring higher laws and principles determining human nature is only superficial, actually being impossible. The impossibility to carry out one’s (self) will makes man frustrated with the state of their own nature (essence), which promotes various negative tendencies reflected in human attitudes, both to themselves and to others and the surrounding world.

Freedom separated from the general divine laws which humans and the communitas are subject to leads to the imagination of one’s autonomy, which actually proves to be slavery, the absolute negation of freedom. According to the author, human freedom is inseparably connected with the general development of the society, and only if the organism achieves its natural, full state, i.e. “the mature age,” freedom will be fully revealed: the awareness of freedom will be achieved. At the same time, Hess does not think that until “coming of age,” or full development, man is confined to incomplete freedom. It does not have to be so, because the character of dependence of all the spheres of life, both biological and spiritual, on laws and principles given by God ensures the possibility to experience freedom: it is faith, the sphere of religious experience based on the relationship between humans and their creator (God). In this way, human experiences freedom in the content of the act of faith, content disclosed by God, which occurs in the “theoretical” field. Freedom can be “thought” (in the sense of “awareness”) before it is experienced by man empirically/practically. The possibility of experiencing freedom before the achievement of the state of full development opens human to total religious experience, in which Hess can see the greatness of Jewish faith.⁸³

Jewish covenant with God, before whom Jews represent the whole mankind as the chosen nation, is a great act showing to humans the nature of their freedom. Thus, Judaism discloses the goal of any progress and development of humanity, that is, the coming of the Messianic era. In this sense, Jews face the historic task ←56 | 57→of “ushering” mankind to the Messianic worldly era, which will end the entire development of human organism. All its parts or members (peoples, races, nations) will achieve the fullness of their nature, the organism will be fully mature, and this will ensure humankind full achievement of their natural freedom, this time understood as the full awareness of their nature and essence. In accordance with this vision, the history will end, and humankind will reach the state of happiness. Those who are supposed to lead mankind to the Messianic era are Jews: that is their worldly mission.

I. 6 Historic Mission of Jews

The belief in the coming of the Messianic era has always been present in Jewish history. Hess emphasizes that the Messianic belief is symbolically expressed in Shabbat.⁸⁴ For Jews, Shabbat is an expression of interpenetration of the created world and the transcendence of divinity. The celebration of Shabbat symbolically reflects the time of the Messiah: the time of eternal happiness. In addition, Shabbat is the discovery of the secret of the act of creation, because it was part of the creation of the world: God worked for six days, and after finishing the work and seeing that all he had done was very good (complete), he rested. Shabbat is the expression of the completeness of the act of creation, so it reflects the ultimate goal of any activity, which – once initiated – must end. Jewish celebration of the Shabbat shows the ultimate goal of any activity, first of all with reference to human actions: maturation and growth of human organism. According to Hess, the Biblical description of creation only has its proper meaning from the perspective of Shabbat. Shabbat teaches man using symbolic language that when the act of creation was completed, God called to existence the creature of the higher order: human. It was then that God, celebrating the natural Shabbat, initiated the proper history of mankind.⁸⁵ Hess points out that creating human and Shabbat begin the history of creation of the social world, whose development still continues and which will celebrate its Shabbat after the completion of the world history – the coming of the Messianic era. The author concludes: “Here, in this conception, you can see the high moral value of the Mosaic genesis history, ←57 | 58→in which supernaturalists have discovered a system of science. As you see, my esteemed friend, the very biblical Sabbath-law in itself inspires us with a feeling of certainty that the uniform, eternal, divine law governs alike both the world of Nature and the world of History.”⁸⁶

So, Jews have an important tool to learn the actual goal of the world history. In this sense, Hess points to the important context of Shabbat, which shows the purposefulness and finality of creation, and the finitude of all that exists. Therefore, Hess considers as fools those who fall victims to the thought of full rationalization of all that exists and elimination of irrational issues, fashionable in the modern time (he particularly means contesting religion and the experience of faith) uncritically assume that in the history of mankind the progress has been unrestricted and endless. Civilization, culture, and human world are in the state of permanent growth, unrestricted progress. Such a vision leads to a dangerous isolation of humans from the world of nature, and to the rejection of the existence and application of some supernatural laws and principles. Another consequence is literal understanding of human freedom as the law to do anything you want. Hess argues that such thinking and such a vision of reality result only from the ignorance of its supporters. Human world cannot be separated from the surrounding world of nature, and from the transcendent divine sphere. Philosophy has shown many times that on the one hand, human is related to the world of nature through their physical characteristics, and on the other hand, they experience some situations indispensably connected with their nature, which from the perspective of reason are just unexplainable and really meaningless. For example, the context of human death. For Hess, faith can help in this situation, because it is the only way to experience the meaning of human existence. The perspective of the beginning, the end (goal) of history and the context of creation, resulting from faith (revelation) give meaning to human life and shows its ultimate goal. Faith also liberates humans, giving them the proper moral sense of freedom. According to the author, all this is maintained and present in Judaism in an excellent way, and the tradition of Shabbat is what connects all the issues.⁸⁷

History overcomes the cult of death, and this occurs only in the Messianic time. Freedom and progress as the two factors determining human activity are ←58 | 59→linked with the coming of the Messianic era. The Jewish religion has been preparing people to it for ages, and Jews themselves are prepared to lead mankind on the way to the Messianic goal. Humans as an organism are beginning to achieve their state of maturity, so in Hess vision, the age of the Messiah – the Shabbat of history – is approaching.⁸⁸

I. 7 The Project of the Jewish State

It what binds the whole reasoning of the author is the proposal that goes far beyond the tradition of the Diaspora and introduces the religious concept of return to Zion into the area of political solution that has never been taken into consideration by the Jewish tradition. Therefore, Hess concept includes the already mentioned transition from sacral to secular meaning of Messianism and the related idea of return to the Promised Land. Hess becomes a precursor of philosophical Zionism, although the idea of returning to Zion and establishing the Jewish state is not presented systematically in his work but is treated as a certain slogan, without showing specifically the practical (political) actions that could contribute to the implementation of this idea. Hess only presents a vague plan, although it reflects the awareness of political and social reality affecting the potential achievement of the state goal by Jews. First of all, he assesses the state of awareness of and “spiritual” preparation of Jews to carrying out their mission, and he leaves the rest to the context of global solutions, that is, some necessary actions caused by the constancy and inevitability of the historical process. The author also tries to notice the symptoms of changes that can lead Jews to Zion. First of all, it is of course Jews’ national self-awareness, already mentioned a number of times. Another positive aspect which according to the author helps attain the dream of having their own state is the current process of colonization of Palestine. The great Aliyah is a complementation, and it may even serve as an impulse stimulating Jewish masses to actively participate in building the nation on the basis of Jewish settlements being created in Palestine. Hess thinks that although the philanthropic movement basically proved to be insufficient, it contributed to arousing the Jewish spirit and directing activity to the building of a new society. Jews taking part in the colonization of Palestine are definitely the ←59 | 60→most active core of the whole community and at the same time one of the most enlightened Jewish groups, because being taken out of the traditional orthodox Diaspora, they are susceptible to new trends and tendencies dominating in external social and political life of the rapidly developing nations of Europe. It is noteworthy that Hess also reflects on the potential allies of Jews in their activities leading up to political and social arousal, but as part of preserving their own distinctness and awareness, mostly national, with the indispensable element of pursuit to create their own state. Where, then, does the author recommend looking for allies and where are the enemies? In response, he opposes the thought, ever-present in Jewish awareness (or at least in some circles in the Diaspora), about the potential agreement with Christianity, with which the Diaspora has coexisted for ages, but which seems to be the main Jewish enemy. Such an agreement, however, is impossible, because the Christian religious idea in a way is a failure. Hess definitely states that there can be no agreement with Christianity, because it displays a clearly expansionist policy toward Judaism, which after all has led to anti-Semitism (anti-Judaism) with all the restrictions against Jews. But after the revolution, Christianity itself also lost its dominant position and in confrontation with social life changes, its role among European communities and nations has weakened a lot. According to Hess, Christianity will not be a serious opponent to the establishment of the Jewish state and the coming of the Messianic era in human history.⁸⁹ The author associates the right climate for the Jewish solution with the advancement of general socialization of masses. Capitalist changes being the basis of the theory of socialist class conflict are powerfully reflected in the Hess’ concept. He can see the importance of development of working-class self-awareness, and the national problem, and links all this with the Jewish religious tradition and Messianism. After centuries of slavery and contempt from non-Jewish (Christian) environment, Jews finally have an opportunity to achieve a solution which will eventually lead them up to their own state in Palestine. In the case of Jews, the revolution and the social changes connected with the class conflict stressed by the socialist ideology had their excellent confirmation. The manufacture and labor relationships in the system of socialist society correspond to the development of broader Jewish awareness of the idea of revolution, which will ultimately do away with everything that nowadays seems to be outdated. Jewish national awareness rises along with the revolutionary awareness.⁹⁰ Humanistic ideals that have always been ←60 | 61→cultivated in the Jewish religion may finally be implemented as a part of socialist transformations. Jews are particularly good candidates for leading the changes, because as a nation oppressed for centuries, they have the right to pursue political and social liberation. Thus, as Hess argues, they can become the natural avant-garde of socialist revolution. The sense of national community seems to him the first condition for normalizing the labor relationships and getting rid of capitalist injustice and capitalist (but also national and racial) oppression. Hess compares human to a plant, which needs soil (understood here both literally and metaphorically) in order to grow. For centuries, the soil, or land, has been divided among people unfairly, which may not have been such a big problem in the beginning, because – as he argues – in the past all humankind as an organism was still in the process of growth, so its needs were smaller. But antagonisms appeared relatively soon, and first wars between nations (peoples) broke out within the great human organism, which in a way resulted from the poor development of the so-called means of production (Hess mentions specifically science and universal industrialization, but includes both of them in the broadly understood socialist formula of means of production), and hence, ←61 | 62→from their insufficiency, as a result of which ground was never able to feed the residents living on it.

The competing peoples established a certain hierarchy, resulting in something that Marx referred to as the era of slavery. That ancient situation called by Hess the “beast state” (Thierereich) ended with the development of science and industrialization, the era of slavery was replaced in the sphere of philosophy and human spirit by rationalism and modern science, and in the sphere of social relations and economy by capitalism.⁹¹ Further development mostly referred to labor relationships, which in capitalism involves the abuse of others. As a classic socialist, Hess points to the evil occurring in capitalism, resulting from the intermediation in the “exchange” of labor, that is, the existence of a group of people that use the effects of others’ (workers’) labor but do not work themselves. The development of social awareness, however, leads to changes that the author observes currently (and to a certain degree anticipates for the nearest future). An important factor of changes is obviously the growing awareness on the part of workers – not only class, but also national, patriotic awareness. On this basis, it is possible to build the foundations of free associations, changing, not only internal class relationships, but also broader social relationships in the racial sense. Associations may also cause the formation of political power able to achieve important goals in the political way. Hess claims one effect of such activity is the political pressure connected with the formation of a national state around a specific territory, in which social relationships must be radically improved. For Jews, this is a huge chance for the implementation of their historic mission. Hess perceives them as the avant-garde of the world revolution occurring, not in a rapid, military or armed way but through cultural and socio-political change. The ally of Jews may be the whole working class, gradually enhancing their political awareness.

In this context, it seems more important to consider the political situation in which the creation of the Jewish state could be successful. Hess proves to be the protagonist of later activities and political solutions taken by Zionists, with Theodor Herzl as the primary figure. He can see first of all the meaningfulness ←62 | 63→of political actions, although he does not specify what actions these could be. Moreover, he does not see the need to create any philosophical or mental background for the Jewish community that could represent them politically abroad. Hess feels the main ally in political activities is France, the cradle of revolution and the related social transformations related. The author vaguely presents the concept of a certain type of alliance between the Jewry and France, trying to find some similarities between the two nations (though he is not very successful). He believes that for France the alliance can be beneficial both in the internal and external aspect. We must remember that France is the cradle of emancipation of Jews, and in this meaning, France has become involved in solving the problem of the contemporary “Jewish Question.” Jews and the French have a common area of interests, which may make them potential allies and be very beneficial for the Jewry, because it offers a political instrument supporting the implementation of the idea of the Jewish state.⁹² At the same time, according to Hess, it was the French people who contributed to the arousal of greater national awareness in the Diaspora.

A further task is vested in Jews themselves, who must restore the national cult as part of the Messianic idea. Hess believes that Jews are at the beginning of this road, although the symptoms of changes are already present. The strength of the Jewry is growing and despite some disrespectful views of political elites that are less willing or hostile to Jews, Jewish awareness is also changing along the social transformations. But in the environment, the stereotype of Jews based on centuries-long anti-Semitism is still common. Hess writes plainly that the Jewish circle is also contributing to reinforcing the image of Jews’ tendency to uphold the old, outdated mentality. The author illustrates it with an example and diagnoses: “You ←63 | 64→smile at my innocent belief in Jewish patriotism. You have undoubtedly read the Ghetto Scenes and you will possibly remind me of the hero, Mendel Wilna, who possessed a fixed idea to persuade the Rothschilds to devote their capital and energy to the rebuilding of the Holy City and Temple, but who only succeeded in winning over a child to his pious belief. The child, when he grew up and attended the University became so wise that he concluded that only children and fools can dream of rebuilding Jerusalem. … [T];he Jewish poet did not see any deeper meaning in the patriotic feeling of pious Jews than considering them merely as a kind of Jewish Christmas trees, able to amuse only little children and elderly fools. All this … applies to the modern poet who is influenced by the Germanic spirit and not to a poet like Judah Halevi, who poured out his heart’s blood in his Jewish poetry. Halevi, actuated by longing for the land of his dreams, grasped the pilgrim’s staff, only to find a grave for himself in his beloved land.”⁹³ It is clear, then, that currently, Jews are still perceived through the stereotype that does not have much in common with the reality. It is a very skeptical image, because it presents the Jewish community as backward, closed in Diasporas and sticking to old messages, mainly the idea of return from exile and the reconstruction of Jerusalem as the symbol of return to the Promised Land. For many centuries, the image of exile has affected Jewish historical and social awareness. It also determines the Jewish attitude to the external world, which was, let us say, neutral. The Diaspora was not very much interested in what was going on outside, and an average Diaspora resident had little contact with the non-Jewish environment, or rather it was limited to the necessary minimum (mainly economic). Obviously, Jewish elites and so-called court Jews had much more contact with the external ←64 | 65→world, but practically, the Jewish community en masse remained more or less isolated for centuries.⁹⁴

Emancipation changed the conditions and forced Jews to act. Paradoxically, the very process initiated with the French Revolution was a tragic change of position for Jews, leading to dramatic choices between their origin (including faith) and the reality of economic and social life. The bankruptcy of emancipation seems obvious for Hess, just like the futility of assimilation.⁹⁵ He treats the tradition and orthodoxy as a link that is an important – perhaps, the most important – motivation for Jewish activity. This, of course is the desire to return to Zion. In this sense, the first step to the implementation of the slogan “next year in Jerusalem” was the philanthropic activities connected with the colonization of Palestine. Hess considers this process to be a positive aspect and good foundation of building the Jewish state in Palestine. Aliyah involved substantial influx of Jews to Palestine, and thus it was a significant step toward political solutions faced by the Jewish community. Undoubtedly, colonization and aliyahs paved the way for the achievement of the most important postulate of Zionism: the establishment of the Jewish state, even if the originator of the movement, Theodor Herzl, initially did not focus on Palestine as the location of the future country. Israel was created in Palestine, because it was the only place where the Jewish state could have been created. Hess could see positive aspects of the process of colonization of Palestine nearly a hundred years before the announcement of the establishment of Israel, seeing twofold benefits in it: first, the influx of ←65 | 66→Jewish people provided the general foundation for building Jewish statehood, and second, the circle of colonists pursued the postulate of new social awareness, strongly rooted in socialist ideals, with the self-awareness of workers, patriotism and the national sense. In this context, the Jewish community of Palestine was an excellent ground for the development of Messianic mission of the Jewish nation as the leader of the whole mankind and human society.⁹⁶ Hess saw the possibility of managing the huge capital included in the Jewish colonization of Palestine. He appreciates the role of great philanthropists, although he can also see the dangers of their dominance over the rest of the Palestinian Jewish community. Still, Palestine is for Hess a great hope for implementing the Messianic idea.⁹⁷

The political solution that the author can see is connected with looking for allies and political support for the plans of establishing the national state. Among the allies, he definitely counts France, then the developing nations of the Western (capitalist) world. Hess is convinced that nationalism thriving in Europe even in the middle of the nineteenth century must have a positive influence on the position of the Diaspora, and except for emancipation, assimilation, and marginalizing modern anti-Semitism, it will allow the Jewish community to build their own version of a secular nation, drawing examples from the great religious tradition with the main idea of Messianism and translating this example to the needs of the modern time as a necessary element of the historical process. Hess is convinced that enabling Jews to build their own country as full anticipation of a national entity will also give extra strength for the whole mankind and will become a great impulse for the further development of the Messianic idea. The Jewish state in Palestine will become the model of a new national and socially fair social order which according to the author will affect the whole humankind. This, among others, will be involved in the human organism as a whole achieving its full maturity.

Being aware of this great, noble goal and understanding the Messianic task for Jews, Hess also mentions several important, specific points which achievement will allow to build the Jewish state in Palestine. Those points are a kind of motivation to create a political program, which many postulates overlap with the later proposals of Zionists. Therefore, Hess proposes to start with large-scale actions in order to purchase land in Palestine and the Middle East. In his view, land is ←66 | 67→crucial for building the state and it must become the capital of the new community. Colonization should be combined with large-scale activities to prepare the purchased (bought out) territories and develop them properly to establish towns and villages. The postulate of buying out land may only be implemented officially as a result of an agreement with Turkey, which controls the areas Jews are interested in.

Building a state should begin with the proper preparation of the environment, and the Jewish ownership of land seems to be significant in this regard.⁹⁸ While demanding political actions connected with purchasing particular territories for the future Jewish state, the author does not propose any specific solutions that can help achieve the key point. This problem will be discussed by the actual protagonists of the political Zionism in the future. Hess’ deliberations remain theoretical, and the next necessary condition for the establishment of the Jewish statehood that he mentions is the proper form of the community of Jewish colonists. Because of the specificity of the colonized areas, the projected community of the new state will mostly be agricultural, and according to Hess, this will mean that the larger part of the Jewish community will have to learn how to work in the field, which is not a common thing in the Diaspora. We need to remember that because they lived in the Diaspora among Christians, the majority of Ashkenazi Jews had never dealt with farming, because practically since the Middle Ages, there had been no place for Jews in the feudal society structure, so they could not own land (and thus, they could not establish feudal relationships). So, there is virtually no agricultural tradition in the Diaspora (although some Jews leased property, they were not users of land). The future state will have to be self-reliant; in addition, colonization also involves urbanization and preparing a difficult territory for cultivation. Hess is perfectly well aware of this, so he can see great importance in teaching the cultivation of the soil and developing the appropriate attitudes connected with it.⁹⁹

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In another point of his plan, Hess stresses the need to defend the new state from external threats. For this, it is necessary to build relevant military force able to resist any invader. A strong army is a guarantee of security of the state itself and its citizens. Hess’ postulate has evidently been achieved in contemporary Israel, whose militarization exceeds the scope occurring in other democratic (and not only democratic) countries. Obviously, the author could not have predicted the scale of the current conflict between Israel and Arabs, but he did see the danger connected with the Islamic world surrounding the Jewish enclave.¹⁰⁰

The last important factor is creating a relevant universal program of education to attract masses of Jewish youths to the idea of colonization and building their own national state. The postulate of universal education is important to develop patriotism and the sense of self-esteem, and to popularize the Messianic idea among Jews, since this is the only way to build a strong society and nation. Hess does not reject teaching based on religious tradition, because in his concept, the Jewish religion and faith play the fundamental role. The appropriate model of culture can only be developed by identifying the most important postulates in Judaism and changing them into universally applicable ideas. Thus, rabbinic Judaism no longer has the monopoly for religious teaching. Hess believes that teaching must become a state policy, so it needs to be secularized, although – and this must be strongly emphasized – for him, the secular character is not in opposition to faith. To the contrary, as we have already seen, Hess is convinced that his Messianic program is not anti-religious. It is the other way around, in the historic order, it expands to the whole humankind the postulate of Jewish covenant concluded between the chosen nation and God. According to Hess, the nation of Israel as the chosen nation is currently facing the task of leading mankind to the Messianic era, the purpose of history. The Jewish state with a properly formed ←68 | 69→educational process must prepare human resources for the implementation of that Messianic postulate. The boundary between religious and secular activity is completely blurred and according to the author, it is a natural process that does not cause any conflict or competition. Judaism well coexists with modern transformations in the socio-political life, and its dogmas are simply postulates to be implemented in the contemporary world. Hess considers it to be the role and task of the proper process of education, which should highlight all the philosophical postulates of universalism and humanism.¹⁰¹

Jews are to become the nation of culture, the people of spiritual regeneration and the source of humanity. He was not really interested in particular political steps to carry out the postulate of building the Jewish state. The outlined plan includes very good and lofty – actually even obvious – postulates, but what is striking is the lack of reasonable evaluation of the possibility to implement them. In this regard, Hess is a dreamer, whose vision seems to break the socio-political reality, which in a way corresponds to the assumptions of the socialist views he promoted and preached. National restoration is possible only through liberation, and this also refers to the Jewish nation. Theoretically, liberation assumes the existence of statehood. In Hess’ time, this seemed a necessary condition and the goal of all national movements. A national state is the quintessence of spiritual and social liberation and according to him, the state must be constructed in a new way, in accordance with the socialist model of equality and social justice. Hess is convinced that social life is formed within specific human types (races), which determine its structure. Still, each form of social life involves some conflict, which has had varied intensity throughout history. Historical advancement means gradual reduction of the conflict up to its complete elimination, which according to Hess will take place in the Messianic era, when the human organism as a whole achieves its full maturity.

Then, the main problem is the introduction of universal progress, i.e. enabling the nature of social life to develop properly. Each nation arising from a certain ←69 | 70→race suits that organic context of social life. For the Jewish national movement, the problem is not its religious origin and strong engagement in religion itself, which has been discussed many times as the basic problem of modern development of the Jewry: sticking to the old orthodox and backward religion, which blocks the proper social development. Modernity in this regard would mean Jews’ liberation from dogmatic chains. Hess’ proposal is completely different, because the problem of Jewish nationalism is not faith or religious restrictions. For him, the main problem of the Jewish Diaspora is how to find the key to arousing patriotic sentiment among Jewish masses so as to evoke in them positive dynamism and active will of changes. In this sense the author feels that there is a chance for releasing energy necessary to build their own state and nation. In this respect, Jews may and even must become leaders of the whole mankind in their mission.

Hess postulated the creation of the Jewish state, necessarily where it has its historical roots: in Palestine. In this point, he became a protagonist of the Zionist movement, yet without pointing to the political way of implementing the postulate involving the creation of the state. In his concept, we may see the origins of the later great dispute as part of the whole Zionist movement. Hess represents Zionism defined as spiritual/Messianic, which the later trend will oppose, the trend that will combine the postulate of Jews creating their own state and the belief about the hopelessness and the crisis of Jewish political and economic life, absent from Hess’s thought. This view will be represented by Leo Pinsker and, primarily, Theodor Herzl, who will go far beyond Hess’ observations with his radical solutions. Jakub Zineman expressed it as follows: “There is a fundamental difference between the spiritual/Messianic Zionism by Moses Hess and later Zionism by Leo Pinsker or Theodor Herzl. While Pinsker and Herzl opted for Zionism due to the misery of political and economic life of Jews, Hess seeks in Palestine the salvation for the culture and Messianic spirit of the Jewry. This difference in the Zionist viewpoint will deepen in later time and crystallize in acute antagonism between political Zionism of Herzl and spiritual (or philosophical) one of Ahad Haam.”¹⁰² In Hess’ idea, we may see the germ of the future great discussion as part of the Zionist movement, although we should be careful in perceiving Hess as a supporter of only cultural restoration of Jews. This plan seems to be a real assumption of certain conditions necessary to carry out Jews’ spiritual revival, not only for purely cultural purposes but also for enhancing ←70 | 71→patriotic awareness necessary to build a strong modern nation. Hess seems to be the protagonist of Herzl, so Zineman is wrong in opposing the two thinkers so strongly. The author is definitely right in the quoted fragment as he refers to the motivations of Hess and Herzl (and also Pinsker). In the case of Hess, the primary element is the Messianic idea of national restoration, and in the case of the other two, the most important are economic and political reality connected with the observation of the poor position of Jews, both in terms of politics and economy. Hess’ concept remains a beautiful idea, somewhat unrelated to the reality of Jewish life, although in the near future it may in a way affect that reality.

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