Оглавление
James A. Jahnke. Continuous Emission Monitoring
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
CONTINUOUS EMISSION MONITORING
PREFACE
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO CEM SYSTEMS
A BRIEF HISTORY
TYPES OF MONITORING SYSTEMS
Extractive Systems
In‐Situ Systems
Remote Sensors
Parameter Monitoring Systems
Analytical Techniques Used in CEM System Instrumentation
Data Acquisition and Handling Systems
THE ROLE OF QUALITY ASSURANCE
APPLICATION
SUMMARY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CHAPTER 2 CEM REGULATIONS
IMPLEMENTING RULES IN THE UNITED STATES
U.S. Federal Implementing Rules
New Source Performance Standards, 40 CFR 60
General Provisions for the NSPS Subparts
NESHAP, 40 CFR 61
The Air Toxics Program, 40 CFR 63
Compliance Assurance Monitoring (CAM) 40 CFR 64
Acid Rain Program (40 CFR 75)
Mandatory Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program (40 CFR 98)
Office of Solid Waste CEM Requirements (40 CFR 266)
Sewage Sludge Incineration (40 CFR 503)
State Programs and Federal Programs Administered by the States
State Implementation Plan Requirements (40 CFR 5l)
40 CFR Part 62 – Federal Requirements for Existing Units Not Covered by a State Plan
40 CFR Part 70 – Title V Operating Permits
Federal Programs Delegated to the States
Part 96 Cross‐State Air Pollution Rule (CSAPR)
The NOx Budget Program (NBP)
The Clean Air Interstate Rule (CAIR)
The Cross‐State Air Pollution Rule (CSAPR)
Other Cap‐and‐Trade Programs
Discretionary Programs
PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS
QUALITY ASSURANCE REQUIREMENTS
Part 60 Quality Assurance Procedures
Other U.S. QA Procedures
The Role of Calibration Gases
INTERNATIONAL RULES
Canada
Europe
Asia
Latin America*
Mexico
Chile
Peru
Brazil
Argentina
Colombia
Ecuador
Developing a National Continuous Emission Monitoring Program
ENFORCEMENT POLICIES AND CEM SYSTEMS
Compliance Indicating Systems – Using CEM Systems for Reporting Excess Emissions
Enforcement Levels
Level 1
Level 2
Level 3
Level 4
Compliance Monitoring Systems – Using CEM Systems for Direct Compliance
COMPLIANCE ASSURANCE MONITORING AND THE CREDIBLE EVIDENCE RULE
Periodic Monitoring
Epilogue
REFERENCES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CHAPTER 3 EXTRACTIVE SYSTEM DESIGN
SOURCE‐LEVEL EXTRACTIVE SYSTEMS
Hot/Wet Systems
Cool/Dry Systems with Conditioning
Sample Probes
Umbilical Line
Calibration Gas System and Cylinder Gas Pressure Regulators
Moisture Removal Methods
Thermoelectric Coolers
Compressor Gas Coolers
NafionTM Dryers
Pollutant Losses in Condensation Systems
Miscellaneous Drying Techniques
Sample Pumps
Fine Filters
Assembling a Cool/Dry Extractive System
CLOSE‐COUPLED SYSTEMS
DILUTION EXTRACTIVE SYSTEMS
Dilution Probes
Dilution Air Cleanup Systems
External Dilution Systems (Probes)
Cross‐Piece Fitting Design
Modular Block Design
The STI Probe
Enhancing the Operation of Dilution Systems
Empirical Corrections
Pressure Correction Equation
Temperature Correction Equation
Molecular Weight Correction Equation
Combined Corrections
Theoretical Corrections
Other Correction Methods
Dilution Extractive Systems: Wet or Dry Measurement?
SAMPLING INTERFACE/MONITOR CALIBRATION
EXTRACTIVE SYSTEM COMPONENTS AND ACCESSORIES
MINI‐SYSTEMS
MODULAR SAMPLING SYSTEMS
REFERENCES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CHAPTER 4 INTRODUCTION TO THE ANALYTICAL METHODS
THE PROPERTIES OF LIGHT
The Wave Nature of Light
Absorption of Light by Molecules
The Beer–Lambert Law
LIGHT SCATTERING BY PARTICLES
Rayleigh Scattering: r/λ ≤ 1
Mie Scattering: r/λ = 1
Geometric Optics: r/λ ≥ 1
Opacity and Transmittance
Bouguer's Law
COMPONENTS OF A SPECTROMETER: BUILDING AN INSTRUMENT
Radiation Sources
UV Light Sources
Visible Light Sources
Broadband Infrared Light Sources
Light Emitting Diodes
Tunable Diode Lasers
Quantum Cascade Lasers
Interband Cascade Lasers
Wavelength Selection
Optical Filters
Diffraction Gratings
Prisms
Detectors
Multipath Gas Cells
White Cells
Herriott Cells
CRDS and ICOS
Optical Components
Constructing a Spectrophotometer
REFERENCES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CHAPTER 5 EXTRACTIVE SYSTEM ANALYZERS
SPECTROSCOPIC METHODS – INFRARED MONITORING INSTRUMENTS
Nondispersive Infrared Analyzers
Spectrophotometers
Differential Absorption Spectroscopy – Infrared Analyzers
Direct Absorption Fast Scan Spectrometers
Wavelength Modulation and Derivative Spectroscopic Methods
Photoacoustic Analyzers
Gas Filter Correlation (GFC) Analyzers
Laser‐Based Analyzers. Cavity Ring‐Down Spectroscopy (CRDS)
Off‐Axis Integrated Cavity Output Spectroscopy (ICOS)
Fourier‐Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy
SPECTROSCOPIC METHODS – ULTRAVIOLET MONITORING INSTRUMENTS
Nondispersive Ultraviolet Photometers
Single‐Beam Dual‐Wavelength Photometers
Design Application – SO2, H2S Single‐Gas Analyzer
Design Application – SO2/NO/NO2 Multi‐gas Analyzer
Application of Linear Photodiode Array Detectors
Application of Diffraction Gratings and Moving Slits
Summary – Differential Absorption
SPECTROSCOPIC METHODS – LUMINESCENCE
Fluorescence Analyzers for SO2 Measurement
Chemiluminescence Analyzers for NO and NOx Measurement
The Chemiluminescence Analyzer
Low NOx Measurements
Measuring NH3 Using Chemiluminescence NOx and Other Analyzers
Inlet–Outlet Differential NOx Technique (Mass Balance Method)
Extractive Differential NOx/NH3 Converter Method
Direct Ammonia Measurement Using Electro‐optical Methods
ELECTROANALYTICAL METHODS
Polarographic Analyzers
Potentiometric Analyzers Using Ion‐Selective Electrodes
Electrocatalytic Analyzers for Measuring Oxygen
Paramagnetic Techniques for Measuring Oxygen
Magnetodynamic Instruments
Thermomagnetic Instruments
Magnetopneumatic Instruments
Thermal Conductivity Analyzers
DEVELOPMENTS IN EXTRACTIVE SYSTEM GAS ANALYZERS
Traditional Approaches
Discrete Analyzers
Multi‐gas Analyzers
Multi‐gas Modular Approaches – External
Multi‐gas Modular Approaches – Internal
Developing Approaches
Miniaturized Sensors/Analyzers
Microtechnology
Miniaturizing the CEM Systems
Application
REFERENCES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CHAPTER 6 IN‐SITU GAS MONITORING SYSTEMS
POINT (SHORT‐PATH) IN‐SITU MONITORS
Probe Designs
Point Monitor Analytical Methods. Differential Absorption
Gas Filter Correlation Methods
Electrocatalytic In‐situ Method
Advantages and Limitations of Point In‐situ Systems
INTEGRATED‐PATH MONITORING SYSTEMS
Single‐Pass Systems
Double‐Pass Systems
Optical Depth
Stratification Issues
Integrated‐Path Analyzer Calibration Issues
Single‐Pass Systems
Double‐Pass Systems
Integrated‐Path Analyzer Analytical Methods
Differential Absorption Techniques
UV Differential Absorption Techniques
Gas Filter Correlation Methods
Diode Laser Systems in Derivative Spectrometers
Tunable Laser Systems
Derivative Spectroscopy (Wavelength Modulation)
Advantages and Limitations of Integrated‐Path CEM Systems
Certification Test Criteria for Integrated‐Path Monitors
Design Criteria
Interference Test
Beam Intensity Test
Temperature Verification Test
Pressure Verification Test
Level of Detection
Response Time Test
Measurement Error
Line Strength Factor
Seven‐Day Calibration Drift Test
Relative Accuracy Test
Quality Assurance for In‐situ CEM Systems
IN‐SITU SYSTEMS VS. EXTRACTIVE SYSTEMS
REFERENCES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CHAPTER 7 FLOW RATE MONITORS
REFERENCE METHODS FOR VOLUMETRIC FLOW
Type‐S Pitot Tube (Method 2)
Three‐Dimensional Pitot Tubes (Method 2F)
Yaw‐Nulling (Method 2G)
Wall‐Effect Measurements (Method 2H and CTM‐041)
Vane Anemometers
Tracer Gas Dilution
CONTINUOUS FLOW MONITORING METHODS
Single Type‐S Pitot Tube
Averaging Differential Pressure Probes
Thermal Mass Flowmeters
Ultrasonic Flow Monitors
Time‐of‐Flight Methods
Optical Scintillation
Infrared Correlation
OTHER METHODS. The Stack Venturi
Physical Models
Computational Fluid Dynamics
Determination of Flow Rates from Engineering Calculations
MONITORING FLOW IN PIPES
CALIBRATING FLOW MONITORING SYSTEMS
The “Pre‐RATA” and the K Factor
Problems in Calibrating Against a Reference Method
PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS FOR FLOW MONITOR CERTIFICATION
Part 60 Appendix B Performance Specification 6
Part 75 Appendix A Specifications
Spanning the Instrument
Interference Checks
Calibration Error Test
Relative Accuracy Specifications
Environment Canada Specifications
Full‐Scale Value
Calibration Drift
Relative Accuracy
Orientation Sensitivity
EN‐ISO 16911 Specifications
The Pre‐investigation
Type‐Testing
The Calibration Function and Validation Criteria
FLOW MONITOR QUALITY ASSURANCE
Daily Calibration Checks
Daily Interference Checks
Quarterly Leak Checks
Flow‐to‐Load Ratio Test
Semiannual/Annual RATA
REFERENCES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CHAPTER 8 OPACITY MONITORS
BASIC COMPONENTS OF TRANSMISSOMETERS
DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS AND MANUFACTURER’S PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS FOR OPACITY MONITORS
Opacity Monitoring Specific Design Criteria. Spectral Response
Angle of Projection/Angle of View
Insensitivity to Ambient Light
Path Length Correction Factor Security
Design Requirements for Calibration Check Devices
External Audit Device
Alignment Indicator
Electronic and Other Specifications
Manufacturers' Performance Specification Tests
The Response Time Test
The Calibration Error Test
The Spectral Response Performance Test
Calibration Device Value and Repeatability
The Manufacturer’s Certificate of Conformance (MCOC)
Design Specifications For Low-Level Opacity Monitors
OPACITY MONITOR INSTRUMENT DESIGN
Beam Splitter Techniques
The Teledyne-Monitor Labs Light Hawk 560 Opacity Monitor
The Sick OMD-41 Opacity Monitor
The AMETEK Land 4500 MKIII Opacity Monitor
The Durag DR-20 Opacity Monitor
The MIP Opacity Monitor
Low-Cost Units
Older Units
Probe-Type Opacity Monitors
LIDAR
OPTICAL DENSITY/OPACITY CALCULATIONS
Stack-Exit Correlation
Calibration Filter Selection
Combiner Equations
Opacity–Mass Correlations
OPACITY MONITOR PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS
Installation Requirements
Particle Stratification
Monitoring Location
Accessibility
The Measurement Path
The Installation
Field Audit Performance Tests
Optical Alignment Assessment
Calibration Error Check
System Response Time Test
Averaging Period Calculation and Recording Check
Operational Test Period
Zero and Upscale Calibration Drift Test
Zero Drift Calculation,
Upscale Calibration Drift Calculation
OPACITY MONITOR QUALITY ASSURANCE
Quality Assurance Plan
Daily Zero and Upscale Calibration Drift Test
Quarterly Audit – Three-Point Calibration Error Test
Optical Alignment
Zero Compensation
Calibration Error Test
Annual Primary Zero Alignment
Setup
Primary Alignment
External Zero Device
Corrective Maintenance and Diagnostic Tests
Routine/Preventive Maintenance
Noncritical Repairs
Critical Repairs
REFERENCES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Note
CHAPTER 9 CONTINUOUS PARTICULATE MONITORING
REGULATORY SPECIFICATIONS
CALIBRATING PARTICULATE MATTER CEMS (PM CEMS)
Reference Method Tests
Statistical Analysis Procedures
Issues Associated with the Correlation Method. The Elusive Generic Correlation
Manual Testing Procedures
Representativeness
Process Operating Conditions
Low‐Level Concentrations – The Problem of Zero
Spiking
Continuing Operation
CONTINUOUS PARAMETER MONITORING SYSTEMS (PM CPMS)
Determining the Operating Limit (Case A)
Determining the Operating Limit (Case B)
BAG LEAK DETECTORS (BLD)
ALTERNATIVE CALIBRATION METHODS
Generating Reference Samples
Mass References
Particle Size Standards
PARTICULATE MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES
Accumulated Mass Sensors
β‐Radiation Attenuation
The Inertial Microbalance (Loaded Oscillator)
Optical Sensors
Light Extinction
Received Light Modulation
Light Scattering Methods
Backscattering
Side‐Scattering
Forward Scattering
Particle Sizing Analyzers
Imaging Systems
Hybrid (Combination) Systems
Extinction/Light Scattering Instrument
Light Scattering/Gravimetric Filter
Light Scattering/Inertial Microbalance
Monitoring in Wet Stacks
Probe Electrification Methods – Triboelectric Devices Applied for Bag Leak Detection
Contact Charge Transfer
Electrodynamic Induction
Bag Leak Detectors and the Part 63 Air Toxics Rule
Choosing a PM System
PM CEMS QUALITY ASSURANCE – REQUIREMENTS FOR CONTINIUING OPERATION
The Quality Assurance/Quality Control Manual
Routine Checks
Daily Drift Check
Extractive Systems Daily Volume Check
Light Scattering Systems Dirty Window Check
Quarterly Audits
Linearity Check – The Absolute Correlation Audit (ACA)
Quarterly Sample Volume Audit (SVA)
PM Correlation Audits
The Relative Response Audit
The Response Correlation Audit
DEVELOPMENTS IN PM CEMS
REFERENCES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Note
CHAPTER 10 CEM SYSTEM CONTROL, DATA ACQUISITION, AND REPORTING
CONTROL SYSTEMS
Computer Control
Programmable Logic Controllers
Data Loggers
Embedded Microprocessors
THE DAHS COMPUTER
CEM System Software Development
Minimum Software Recommendations
Advanced Software Functions – Missing Data Substitution
Advanced Functions – Preventive Maintenance
Advanced Functions – The Electronic Logbook
Advanced Functions – Predictive Emissions Monitoring
Phenomenological Models
Least Squares Regression Models
Neural Network Models
Data Handling Functions of the DAHS Computer
Data Correction
Data Conversion – Units of the Standard
Data Averaging
Polling Averages
Regulatory Averages
DAHS Computer Screen Displays
Data Recording
DATA REPORTING
The U.S. EPA Excess Emission Report
The U.S. EPA Part 75 Electronic Data Report
Other U.S. Reporting Programs
Reporting Guidelines in Canada
Reporting Requirements in the European Union
Communication
DAHS QUALITY ASSURANCE
SUMMARY
POSTSCRIPT ‐ SUGGESTED PROGRAMMING PRINCIPLES FOR CEM DATA ACQUISITON SYSTEMS
REFERENCES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Note
CHAPTER 11 CERTIFYING CEM SYSTEMS
PART 60 PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS AND TEST PROCEDURES
Installation Specifications
Accessibility
Representativeness
Gas Stratification
Particle Stratification
Quantifying the Degree of Stratification
EPA-Recommended Locations for Gas Monitoring CEM Systems
Probe Locations
Sampling Locations – Point Monitoring Systems
Sampling Locations – Integrated Path (Cross-Stack) Monitoring Systems
PART 60 DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS FOR GAS MONITORING SYSTEMS
Span
Calibration Drift Capability
PART 60 PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS FOR GAS MONITORS
Performance Specification Test (PST) Procedures in the United States and Canada
The Calibration Drift (Error) Test
Part 60 Calibration Drift Calculations
The Linearity (Measurement Error) Test
The Environment Canada Calibration Drift Test
Cycle Time/Response Time Test
Dynamic Spiking Test (Method of Standard Additions)
The Relative Accuracy Test
Test Protocol
Pretest Meeting
Safety Policy and Procedures Safety
Relative Accuracy Test Procedures
Relative Accuracy Test Calculations
Bias Tests
The Part 75 Bias Test
The Environment Canada Bias Test
International Standards Organization (ISO) Bias Tests
Relative Accuracy Procedure as a Percentage of the Emission Limit
Relative Accuracy as a Percentage of Certified Gas Concentration (Alternative Procedures)
The Relative Accuracy Test Report
Causes for Failure of a Relative Accuracy Test
PART 75 PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS
PART 63.8 MONITORING REQUIREMENTS
ENVIRONMENT CANADA EPS/1/PG/7 CEM GUIDELINES
INTERNATIONAL APPROACHES TO CEM SYSTEM CERTIFICATION AND APPROVAL. International Standards Organization (ISO) Standards for Gas Monitoring Systems
ISO Performance Characteristics
ISO Test Procedures
ISO Laboratory (or Installed System Test Procedures)
Lower Detection Limit (Required Specification)
Interference Rejection (Required Specification)
Response Time (Required Specification)
Analyzer Linearity (Required Specification – Given Implicitly in Test Procedures)
Temperature-Responsive Zero and Span Instability (Recommended Specification)
Zero and Span Drifts (Recommended Specification)
ISO Field Test Procedures
The European Union EN 14181 Standard for Automated Monitoring Systems
QAL1: CEM System Fitness for Use
QAL2: Calibration and Uncertainty Verification
The Calibration Function
The Variability Test
QAL3: Ongoing Quality Assurance
DEVELOPING CEM CERTIFICATION PROCEDURES AND STANDARDS
REFERENCES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Note
CHAPTER 12 MONITORING FOR MERCURY
MERCURY ISSUES
MERCURY REGULATIONS
Coal‐Fired Electric Generating Units
Cement Plants
Municipal Waste Combustors and Incinerators
Canadian Mercury Regulations
Mercury Emissions Outside of North America
MERCURY MONITORING
Analytical Methods for Mercury Monitoring
Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy
Removing SO2
Interference Corrections Using Dual Sample Cells
Interference Corrections Using the Zeeman Effect
Atomic Fluorescence Spectroscopy
Continuous Mercury Monitoring Systems
Example 1: Dilution‐Extractive with Gold Amalgamation and Atomic Fluorescence Spectrometer
Example 2: Dilution‐Extractive with Atomic Fluorescence Spectrometer
Other Systems
Calibrators
Elemental Mercury Head Space Calibrators
Mercury Permeation TubesPermeation tubes
The Integrity Check – Calibration with Oxidized Mercury
Evaporative HgCl2 Calibrators
Reactive Mercuric Chloride Generators
Calibrator Traceability Protocol
SORBENT TRAP MERCURY MONITORING SYSTEMS
Sorbent Trap System Design Criteria
Required Calibrations
PS‐12B QUALITY CONTROL CRITERIA
Leak Checks
Proportional Sampling
Percent Breakthrough
Paired Trap Agreement
Spike Recovery Study
Field Sample Spike Recoveries
Advantages and Disadvantages of Sorbent Trap Systems
CONTINUOUS MERCURY MONITORING SYSTEMS – CERTIFICATION
Part 60 Continuous Mercury Monitoring System Certification Requirements – Instrumented systems
Part 63 MATS Rule Certification Requirements for Electric Generating Units
Sorbent Trap Monitoring Systems – Certification
CONTINUOUS MERCURY MONITORING SYSTEMS – QUALITY ASSURANCE
Part 60 Quality Assurance Requirements
Part 63 MATS Rule Quality Assurance Requirements for Electric Generating Units
Sorbent Trap Mercury Monitoring Systems – Quality Assurance
REFERENCE TEST METHODS FOR MERCURY
Ontario Hydro Method – Standard Test Method for Elemental, Oxidized, Particle‐Bound and Total Mercury in Flue Gas Generated from Coal‐Fired Stationary Sources (ASTM D6784)
EPA Test Method 30A – Determination of Total Vapor‐Phase Mercury Emissions
EPA Test Method 30B – Determination of Total Vapor‐Phase Mercury Emissions from Coal‐Fired Combustion Sources using Carbon Sorbent Traps
EPA Test Method 29 – Determination of Metals Emissions from Stationary Sources
EPA Test Method 101A – Determination of Particulate and Gaseous Mercury Emissions from Sewage Sludge Incinerators
REFERENCES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CHAPTER 13 MONITORING HAZARDOUS AIR POLLUTANTS
PART 61 NATIONAL EMISSION STANDARDS FOR HAZARDOUS AIR POLLUTANTS (NESHAPS)
40 CFR 63 AIR TOXICS PROGAM GENERAL PROVISIONS
Definitions (§63.7)
Performance Testing (§63.7)
Monitoring Requirements (§63.8)
Quality Control Programs [§63.8(d)]
Performance Evaluation of CEMS [§63.8(e)]
Recordkeeping and Reporting (§63.10)
PART 63 SUBPARTS – SOURCE‐SPECIFIC HAP MONITORING REQUIREMENTS
Major Sources Affected by the Air Toxics Rule
Coal‐Fired Electric Generating Units – 40 CFR 63 Subpart UUUUU – The EGU MACT
Portland Cement Plants – 40 CFR 63 Subpart LLL – The PC MACT
Petroleum Refineries – 40 CFR 63 Subpart CC and UUU – The Refinery MACT
Refinery MACT 1 – Subpart CC
Refinery MACT 2 – Subpart UUU
METHODS FOR MEASURING HAZARDOUS AIR POLLUTANTS
MONITORING FOR ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Gas Chromatography
Basic Principles of Gas Chromatography
The Sampling System
Detectors
Flame Ionization Detectors
Flame Photometric Detector
Photoionization Detectors
Thermal Conductivity Detectors
Electron Capture Detector
Mass Spectrometers Used as Detectors
Other Detectors
Total Hydrocarbon Analyzers
Mass Spectrometry
Calorimeters
Ion‐Mobility Spectrometry
MONITORING FOR ACID GASES
Options for Monitoring Acid Gases
HCl Calibration Gases
MONITORING FOR METALS
X‐ray Fluorescence Spectrometry
Laser‐Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy
Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectroscopy
Certifying Multi‐metal CEM Systems
Particulate Matter Surrogate Monitoring
POLYCHLORINATED DIBENZODIOXINS AND POLYCHLORINATED DIBENZOFURANS
Dioxin/Furan Continuous Emission Monitoring Options in Part 63
Continuous Emission Monitoring for Dioxin/Furans
Reference Methods
Semicontinuous Sampling Systems
Sampling Approaches
Sample Recovery and Analyte Extraction and Cleanup
Commercial Systems
ENVEA
TECORA
Gasmet
Accuracy of the Commercial Systems
Current Status of Dioxin/Furan Sampling Systems
Real‐Time Dioxin/Furan Monitoring Methods
SUMMARY – MEASURING HAPS
REFERENCES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CHAPTER 14 GREENHOUSE GAS MONITORING
METRICS USED IN REPORTING GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS
Gas Concentration
Pollutant Mass Rate
Global Warming Potential (GWP)
Carbon Dioxide Equivalent (CO2e)
Carbon (Emission) Intensity
Per Capita CO2 Emissions
Metrics and Their Implications
DIRECT MEASUREMENT AND ESTIMATION METHODS FOR GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS
IPCC EMISSION INVENTORY PROCEDURES
REPORTING GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS – U.S. MANDATORY GREENHOUSE GAS REPORTING RULE
The Tier Approach: Part 98 Subpart C – Calculating CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion
Tier 1 – Measuring Fuel Use
Tier 2 – Measuring Fuel Use and High Heating Value (HHV)
Tier 3 – Measuring Fuel Use and Carbon Content
Tier 4 – Continuous Emission Monitoring
Subpart C – CH4 and N2O Reporting Methods
Subpart C – Quality Assurance/Quality Control
Approaches to Reporting – Examples
Example 1: Subpart D – Electricity Generation
Example 2: Subpart H – Cement Production
Example 3: Subpart N – Glass Production
Example 4: Subpart Q – Iron and Steel Production
Mass Balance Method
Site‐Specific Emission Factor Method
Example 5: Subpart Y – Petroleum Refineries
Example 6: Subpart AA – Pulp and Paper Manufacturing
Uncertainties
REPORTING GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS – CANADA
REPORTING GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS – EUROPEAN UNION
INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS ORGANIZATION (ISO) GREENHOUSE GAS STANDARDS
SUMMARY
REFERENCES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CHAPTER 15 QUALITY ASSURANCE PROGRAMS FOR CEM SYSTEMS
A QUALITY ASSURANCE FRAMEWORK
PROCUREMENT QUALITY CONTROL
Prepurchase Evaluation/Selection
CEM System Technical Specifications
Record Keeping
Proposal Evaluations
CERTIFICATION QUALITY CONTROL
The Source Testing Company
The Performance Specification Test Plan
Performance Specification Test Quality Assurance Recommendations
CONTINUING OPERATION – QUALITY ASSURANCE PROGRAMS
Writing the Quality Assurance Manual
Options for Writing the Manual
Writing the Manual
Writing the Manual – Guide to the Sections
System Description
The QA Plan
Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)
CONTINUING OPERATION – ELEMENTS OF QUALITY CONTROL
Daily Calibration Drift Verifications
Tolerance and Out‐of‐control Conditions
Control Charts
Periodic System Inspections
Maintenance
Preventive Maintenance
Predictive Maintenance
Proactive Maintenance
Corrective Maintenance (Nonroutine Maintenance or Reactive Maintenance)
Managing Change
Declaring Obsolescence
Logbook Documentation
CONTINUING OPERATION – AUDIT PROCEDURES
Performance Audits
The Cylinder Gas Audit (CGA)
Set‐Up Configuration
Performing the Audit
Audit Gases
The Relative Accuracy Test Audit (RATA)
The Relative Accuracy Audit (RAA)
Alternative Quarterly Audit (Canada)
Summary of Out‐of‐Control Criteria for Gas Monitors
Availability
Other Techniques
Opacity Monitor Filter Audits
Particulate Monitor Audits
Flow Monitor Audits
NOx Correlations
Predictive Emission Monitoring (PEM) Systems
CONTINUING OPERATION – SYSTEMS AUDITS/AGENCY INSPECTIONS
Entrance Briefing
CEM System Site Tour
System Configuration
System Condition – Stack/Duct Installation Points
System Condition – Umbilical Lines and Electrical Cable
Calibration and Audit Gases
Auditing in the CEM Shelter
System Operational Procedures
System Condition – Conditioning System (for Extractive Systems)
System Condition – Analyzer Control Panels/Analyzers
Unit Operator(s) Interview
Spare Parts Inventory
Review of Records and Data
Internal Records
Previous Systems Audit Report
Logbooks
Forms – Calibration Verification, Inspection, Preventive Maintenance, Corrective Maintenance
Work Orders and PMs
Archived Data
Other Records
External Reports
The Exit Briefing
The Audit Report
The Quality Assurance Cycle
REFERENCES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Notes
APPENDIX A UNITS OF THE STANDARD AND F FACTORS
CONCENTRATION‐BASED STANDARDS
The Basic Concentration Measurements (ppm, Percent)
Correcting Concentration Measurements to a Dry Basis
Correcting Concentration Measurements to Standard Conditions
CO2 Correction (Corrected to 12% CO2)
O2 Correction (Corrected to 6% O2)
Excess Air Correction
POLLUTANT MASS RATE STANDARDS
PROCESS EMISSIONS WEIGHT RATE STANDARDS
EMISSION RATE FOR COMBUSTION SOURCES: THERMAL
EMISSION RATE FOR COMBUSTION SOURCES: THERMAL – F‐FACTOR APPROACH
The Oxygen‐Based Dry F Factor, Fd
The Oxygen‐Based Wet F Factor, Fw
The Carbon Dioxide‐Based F Factor, Fc
Tabulated F Factors and Conversion Factors
Other Uses of F Factors
Cross‐checking O2 and CO2 Data
Calculating Flue Gas Flow Rate from F factors
Calculating Heat Rate QH from F Factors
Calculating Moisture Content Bws from F factors
Calculating F Factors
Greenhouse Gas Reporting
Errors and Problems in the Use of F Factors
SUMMARY
REFERENCES
APPENDIX B CONVERSION FACTORS AND USEFUL INFORMATION. CONSTANTS
IUPAC STANDARD TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE (STP)
EPA STANDARD CONDITIONS
Molecular Weights and Gas Concentration Units
Atomic Weight
CONVERSION EXPRESSIONS. Temperature
CONVERSION FACTORS. Length
Volume
Mass
Mass per Unit Volume
Velocity
Energy
Power
Power Estimation Factors
INDEX
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