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Оглавление1 Part 2Figure 1 Phylogenetic tree of the major bacterial phyla, based on SSU rRNA seque...
2 Chapter 1Figure 1.1 The tile-shaped halophilic archaeon Haloquadratum walsbyi. (Source: W...Figure 1.2 Section of a stratified microbial mat from Guerrero Negro, Baja Calif...Figure 1.3 The bacterium Epulopiscium fishelsoni (ca. 500 μm long) and four cell...Figure 1.4 A negative-stain electron micrograph of the S-layer of Pyrobaculum ae...Figure 1.5 Moose Pool, Yellowstone National Park, pH ~2, 80°C. doi:10.1128/97815...Figure 1.6 Chlorobium symbiotic consortium. (Reprinted from Wanner G, Vogl K, Ov...Figure 1.7 Overlay of phase-contrast and red and green fluorescent images of spo...Figure 1.8 A swarm of Myxococcus xanthus (left) invading a colony of E. coli (ri...Figure 1.9 Phylogenetic tree of representative organisms based on small-subunit ...Figure 1.10 The Central Dogma: flow of information from archive (DNA) to functio...Figure 1.11A Homo sapiens versus E. coli (B) small-subunit rRNA secondary struct...Figure 1.11B doi:10.1128/9781555818517.ch1.f1.11B
3 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 The “chain of being,” with some representative organisms shown. To th...Figure 2.2 The “evolutionary ladder,” an evolutionary transformation of the chai...Figure 2.3 Evolution by diversification. In this diagram, species A and I at the...Figure 2.4 The tree of life. (Reprinted from Ernst Haeckel, Generelle Morphologi...Figure 2.5 The five-kingdom tree taught in most schools in the United States. (R...Figure 2.6 Phylogenetic tree of representative organisms based on small-subunit ...
4 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 Clock-like behavior. The extent of sequence divergence between a pair...Figure 3.2 The Escherichia coli SSU rRNA secondary structure. (Courtesy of Robin...Figure 3.3 The polymerase chain reaction (PCR). doi:10.1128/9781555818517.ch3.f3...Figure 3.4 Chain termination sequencing. doi:10.1128/9781555818517.ch3.f3.4Figure 3.5 Example sequence data from a DNA sequencing reaction. doi:10.1128/978...Figure 3.6 A small window into an alignment of SSU rRNA sequences. doi:10.1128/9...Figure 3.7A Comparison of two RNase P RNAs with very different sequences and ver...Figure 3.7B doi:10.1128/9781555818517.ch3.f3.7BFigure 3.8 An RNA alignment based on secondary structure. If residue n (e.g., 24...Figure 3.9 RNase P RNA helix “P3” in a variety of Archaea. The base pairs corres...
5 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 The Jukes and Cantor equation plotted as observed sequence similarity...Figure 4.2 An example phylogenetic tree of the relationships between great apes....Figure 4.3 Two different representations of the same phenogram of phylogenetic r...Figure 4.4 Two different dendrogram representations of the same phylogenetic rel...Figure 4.5 Measuring phylogenetic distances in dendrograms. doi:10.1128/97815558...Figure 4.6 Measuring phylogenetic distances in phenograms. doi:10.1128/978155581...Figure 4.7 Sequence of the ES-2 SSU rRNA, in GenBank format. doi:10.1128/9781555...Figure 4.8 Secondary structure of the ES-2 SSU rRNA sequence. This is a hand-dra...Figure 4.9 Phylum-scale tree including ES-2, generated using the RDP II website....Figure 4.10 Tree of representative Firmicutes, including ES-2, generated using t...Figure 4.11 Fine-scale phylogenetic tree of ES-2, generated using the RDP II web...
6 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Two-parameter substitution models distinguish between transitions and...Figure 5.2 A six-parameter substitution model scores each possible substitution....Figure 5.3 An alignment showing two fundamentally different types of gaps. All o...Figure 5.4 Generation of a “long-branch attraction” artifact in a phylogenetic t...Figure 5.5 Example of a published phylogenetic tree with bootstrap values includ...
7 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 A representative archaeal RNase P RNA, from the methanogen Methanothe...Figure 6.2 A phylogenetic tree generated from an alignment of archaeal RNase P R...Figure 6.3 Location of the “spacer” sequence in rRNA gene clusters. doi:10.1128/...Figure 6.4 The iScreen Strep A test kit uses an ELISA. (Image supplied by CLIAwa...Figure 6.5 FAME profile of Mycobacterium szulgai. (Redrawn from Müller KD, Schmi...Figure 6.6 AFLP analysis of Clostridium botulinum type I strains. A phenogram sh...Figure 6.7 API 20E strip. This result identifies the culture as E. coli. The pat...
8 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 A phylogenetic tree of representative organisms based on SSU rRNA seq...Figure 7.2 Phylogenetic tree of the bacterial phyla, with the two phyla of predo...Figure 7.3 Electron micrograph (thin section) of mammalian lung mitochondria. (S...Figure 7.4 Schematic of how trees of early-duplicated gene alignments can be use...Figure 7.5 Rooted “universal” dendrogram showing the specific affiliation of Arc...Figure 7.6 Schematic view of the “Tree of Life” incorporating horizontal gene tr...Figure 7.7 The Doolittle “Tree of Life,” with the underlying three-domain tree r...
9 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Phylogenetic tree of the bacterial phyla, with the phyla Thermotogae ...Figure 8.2 Phylogenetic relationships between representative members of the Aqui...Figure 8.3 Electron micrograph (shadow cast) of Aquifex pyrophilus. (Courtesy of...Figure 8.4 Scanning electron micrograph of Thermocrinus ruber. (Reprinted from H...Figure 8.5 Octopus Spring, a neutral-pH hot spring in Yellowstone National Park....Figure 8.6 Phylogenetic tree of the genera of the phylum Thermotogae. doi:10.112...Figure 8.7 Electron micrograph (thin section) of Thermotoga maritima. (Courtesy ...Figure 8.8 Electron micrograph of Thermosipho melanesiense, a close relative of ...Figure 8.9 Electron micrograph (thin section) of Fervidobacterium islandicum. (C...Figure 8.10 Obsidian Pool, a slightly acidic boiling hot spring in Yellowstone N...Figure 8.11 Representation of enzymatic activities from different kinds of organ...
10 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Phylogenetic tree of the bacterial phyla, with the phyla Chlorobi (gr...Figure 9.2 Phylogenetic tree of the genera of the Chloroflexi. doi:10.1128/97815...Figure 9.3 Phase-contrast micrograph of Chloroflexus aurantiacus (Source: Wikime...Figure 9.4 Chloroflexus-rich microbial mat in the outflow of Excelsior Geyser, Y...Figure 9.5 Phase-contrast micrograph of Roseiflexus castenholzii. (Source: Marce...Figure 9.6 Phase-contrast micrograph of Herpetosiphon aurantiacus, showing its f...Figure 9.7 Phase-contrast micrograph of Anaerolinea thermophila. (Reprinted from...Figure 9.8 Phylogenetic tree of the genera of the phylum Chlorobi. doi:10.1128/9...Figure 9.9 Chlorobium tepidum chlorosomes. (Reprinted from Frigaard NU, Voigt GD...Figure 9.10 Chlorobium symbiotic consortium. The visible cells are nonmotile Chl...Figure 9.11 Phase-contrast micrograph of Chlorobium limicola. Notice the extrace...Figure 9.12 Phase-contrast micrograph of Pelodictyon phaeclathratiforme. (Unattr...Figure 9.13 Phylogenetic tree of representative genera of the phylum Cyanobacter...Figure 9.14 Bright-field micrograph of Microcystis. (Source: Jason Oyadomari.) d...Figure 9.15 Bright-field micrograph of Dermocarpa violacea. (Photo credit: UTEX ...Figure 9.16 Bright-field micrograph of Oscillatoria. Notice that these individua...Figure 9.17 Bright-field micrograph of Anabaena. Dark green cells are vegetative...Figure 9.18 Bright-field micrograph of Fischerella. Notice the main filaments co...Figure 9.19 Photograph of an ascidian (sea squirt) with Prochloron symbionts in ...Figure 9.20 Diagrammatic view of the flow of electrons during cyclic photosynthe...Figure 9.21 Diagrammatic view of the flow of electrons through the electron tran...Figure 9.22 Diagrammatic view of the flow of electrons during sulfur-dependent p...Figure 9.23 Diagrammatic view of the flow of electrons during oxygenic photosynt...Figure 9.24 Diagrammatic view of the Calvin cycle. doi:10.1128/9781555818517.ch9...Figure 9.25 Diagrammatic view of the reductive TCA cycle. Fd, ferredoxin. doi:10...Figure 9.26 Diagrammatic view of the hydroxypropionate pathway. doi:10.1128/9781...Figure 9.27 Diagrammatic view of the Wood reaction. THF, tetrahydrofolate; Fd, f...
11 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 Phylogenetic tree of the bacterial phyla, with the phylum Proteobact...Figure 10.2 Phylogenetic tree of representative proteobacteria, with each of the...Figure 10.3 Phylogenetic tree of representative Alphaproteobacteria. doi:10.1128...Figure 10.4 Phase-contrast micrograph of Rhodomicrobium vannielii, showing polar...Figure 10.5 Life cycle of Caulobacter crescentus. Flagellated swarmer cells tran...Figure 10.6 Alfalfa root nitrogen-fixing nodules. (Courtesy of Ninjatacoshell, h...Figure 10.7 Egg of the wasp Trichogramma kaykai. The brightly stained dots conce...Figure 10.8 Phylogenetic tree of representative Betaproteobacteria. doi:10.1128/...Figure 10.9 Diagnostic test for southern bacterial wilt. Cut off a section of th...Figure 10.10 A river polluted by acid mine drainage and the resulting overgrowth...Figure 10.11 Phase-contrast micrograph of Sphaerotilus natans. Notice the indivi...Figure 10.12 Phylogenetic tree of representative γ-proteobacteria. doi:10.1128/9...Figure 10.13 Electron micrograph of the familiar bacterium Escherichia coli. Sho...Figure 10.14 A typical aphid, host of the bacterial symbiont Buchnera aphidicola...Figure 10.15 Two filaments of Beggiatoa alba (the thinner vertical filament is i...Figure 10.16 Electron micrograph of Azotobacter vinelandii cysts. (Reprinted fro...Figure 10.17 Bright-field micrograph of Chromatium okenii (a close relative of C...Figure 10.18 Phylogenetic tree of representative δ-proteobacteria. doi:10.1128/9...Figure 10.19 Scanning electron micrograph of Desulfovibrio desulfuricans. (Sourc...Figure 10.20 Close-up photograph of simple Myxococcus xanthus fruiting bodies. (...Figure 10.21 Life cycle of Bdellovibrio bacteriovorans, assembled from scanning ...Figure 10.22 Phylogenetic tree of representative ε-proteobacteria. doi:10.1128/9...Figure 10.23 Shadow-cast electron micrograph of Helicobacter pylori. Notice the ...Figure 10.24 The deep-sea hydrothermal vent scaly snail Crysomallon squamiferum....Figure 10.25 Simplified representation of the electron transport chain. The oxid...
12 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 Phylogenetic tree of the bacterial phyla, with the two phyla of (pre...Figure 11.2 Phylogenetic tree of representative members of the Firmicutes. doi:1...Figure 11.3 Phase-contrast micrographs of Bacillus cereus (a.k.a. Arthromitis) g...Figure 11.4 Light micrograph of Gram-stained Clostridium botulinum. Notice the t...Figure 11.5 Phase-contrast micrograph of Leuconostoc mesenteroides. (Source: U.S...Figure 11.6 Mycoplasma mobile, showing the typical pear-shaped morphology of the...Figure 11.7 Fluorescent antibody of the parasitic flagellate Trichomonas vaginal...Figure 11.8 Phylogenetic tree of representative actinobacteria. doi:10.1128/9781...Figure 11.9 Scanning electron micrograph of snapping division in Arthrobacter gl...Figure 11.10 Overlay of phase-contrast and red and green fluorescent images of s...Figure 11.11 Stained sample of human tissue (blue) infected with Mycobacterium u...Figure 11.12 Scanning electron micrograph of Thermoleophilum album resting on a ...
13 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 Phylogenetic tree of the bacterial phyla, with the bacteroids and sp...Figure 12.2 Phylogenetic tree of representative members of the Spirochaetae. doi...Figure 12.3 Shadow-cast electron micrograph of a typical spirochete, showing the...Figure 12.4 (Top) A typical termite and a gastrointestinal tract dissected from ...Figure 12.5 Treponema denticola. (A and B) Fluorescent micrographs and (C) elect...Figure 12.6 Electron micrograph of Borrelia recurrentis. This spirochete is not ...Figure 12.7 Electron micrograph of Leptospira biflexa. The cell is wrapped in a ...Figure 12.8 Phylogenetic tree of representative bacteroids. doi:10.1128/97815558...Figure 12.9 Scanning electron micrograph of Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron. (Court...Figure 12.10 Phase-contrast micrograph of Flavobacterium johnsoniae. (Reprinted ...Figure 12.11 Scanning electron micrograph of Cytophaga hutchinsonii cells digest...Figure 12.12 Flagellar motility. Flagella are helical fibers, analogous to prope...Figure 12.13 Vibrios or spirilla are flagellated organisms that recapture some o...Figure 12.14 Gliding motility in some organisms is driven by secretion of polysa...Figure 12.15 Gliding motility in some organisms is driven by adhesins that move ...Figure 12.16 Twitching motility is directed by the extension of pili, which adhe...Figure 12.17 The honeycomb arrays inside the cytoplasm of this dividing Microcys...Figure 12.18 Motility by spirochetes. Rotation of the rigid helical cell body wi...Figure 12.19 Model of Spiroplasma motility. Kinks, where the helix switches from...
14 Chapter 13Figure 13.1 Phylogenetic tree of the bacterial phyla, with the phyla Chlamydia, ...Figure 13.2 Phylogenetic tree of the genera of Deinococcus-Thermus. doi:10.1128/...Figure 13.3 Kill curves of Escherichia coli versus Deinococcus radiodurans upon ...Figure 13.4 Electron micrograph (thin section) of dividing Deinococcus radiodura...Figure 13.5 Octopus Spring, Yellowstone National Park, from which Thermus aquati...Figure 13.6 Thermus aquaticus, thin-section electron micrograph. Oval cells are ...Figure 13.7 Phylogenetic tree of representative members of the Chlamydiae. doi:1...Figure 13.8 The chlamydial developmental cycle. The small, infectious elementary...Figure 13.9 Trachoma. Notice the granular, everted eyelids. This patient is unus...Figure 13.10 Protochlamydia amoebophila (pink) in two cells of its host, Acantha...Figure 13.11 Phylogenetic tree of the genera of Planctomycetes. doi:10.1128/9781...Figure 13.12 Phase-contrast micrograph of a rosette of Planctomyces bekefii. (Fr...Figure 13.13 Electron micrograph of Planctomyces bekefii showing the external fi...Figure 13.14 Phase-contrast micrograph of Blastopirellula marina rosettes. (From...Figure 13.15 Thin-section electron micrograph of Blastopirellula marina. The dar...Figure 13.16 Negatively stained electron micrograph of Isosphaera, with buds for...Figure 13.17 Thin-section electron micrograph of Isosphaera. The intracellular m...Figure 13.18 Thin-section electron micrograph of Brocadia anammoxidans. The “rib...Figure 13.19 Phase-contrast micrograph of Gemmata obscuriglobus. Notice the budd...Figure 13.20 Thin-section electron micrograph of Gemmata obscuriglobus. Ribosome...
15 Chapter 14Figure 14.1 Phylogenetic tree of the Bacteria, with the main phylogenetic branch...Figure 14.2 Phylogenetic tree of the phylum Verrucomicrobia, including cultivate...Figure 14.3 Scanning electron micrograph of Verrucomicrobium spinosum. (Reprinte...Figure 14.4 Thin-section electron micrograph of Prosthecobacter dejongeii, a clo...Figure 14.5 Phylogenetic tree of the phylum Acidobacteria, including cultivated ...Figure 14.6 Fluorescence micrograph of Acidobacterium capsulatum. (Source: U.S. ...Figure 14.7 Phylogenetic tree of the phylum Nitrospira, including cultivated spe...Figure 14.8 Scanning electron micrograph of Leptospirillum ferrooxidans. (Courte...Figure 14.9 Electron micrograph of Magnetobacterium bavaricum. (From The Scienti...Figure 14.10 Phylogenetic tree of the phylum Fusobacteria, including cultivated ...Figure 14.11 Gram stain of Fusobacterium nucleatum. (Gini G. 2006. Gram-stained ...Figure 14.12 Phylogenetic tree of the phylum OP11, for which no cultivated speci...Figure 14.13 The author collecting samples in Obsidian Pool, Yellowstone Nationa...Figure 14.14 Phylogenetic tree of the phylum SR1, known only from two similar (b...Figure 14.15 Phylogenetic tree of the family Enterobacteriaceae, including an ar...
16 Chapter 15Figure 15.1 Phylogenetic tree of the Archaea. Extremely halophilic members are h...Figure 15.2 Phylogenetic tree of representatives of the phylum Crenarchaeota doi...Figure 15.3 “The Pit” (an informal name), an acidic hot spring in the Mud Volcan...Figure 15.4 Shadow-cast electron micrograph of Thermoproteus tenax. (Courtesy of...Figure 15.5 Scanning electron micrograph of Pyrodictium occultum. (Courtesy of G...Figure 15.6 Negative-stain electron micrograph of Sulfolobus solfataricus infect...Figure 15.7 Phylogenetic tree of representatives of the phylum Euryarchaeota. Ex...Figure 15.8 Methanogenesis from C1 compounds (top), or acetate or methanol (lowe...Figure 15.9 Scanning electron micrograph of Methanocaldococcus jannaschii. (Sour...Figure 15.10 Scanning electron micrograph of Methanothermobacter thermautotrophi...Figure 15.11 Phase-contrast image of Methanosarcina barkeri-like organisms in an...Figure 15.12 A bloom of halophilic Archaea in a saltern in Namibia. (Courtesy of...Figure 15.13 Deep-sea “black smoker” hydrothermal vents, the habitat of Pyrococc...Figure 15.14 Shadow-cast electron micrograph of Archaeoglobus fulgidus. (Courtes...Figure 15.15 Scanning electron micrograph of Thermoplasma acidophilum. (Dennis S...Figure 15.16 Obsidian Pool, Yellowstone National Park, samples of which yielded ...Figure 15.17 Scanning electron micrograph of purified Korarchaeum cryptophilum f...Figure 15.18 Shadow-cast micrograph of Nanoarchaeum equitans (small irregular co...
17 Chapter 16Figure 16.1 A phylogenetic tree of representative eukaryotes. (Adapted from Cicc...Figure 16.2 Unrooted phylogenetic tree of the eukaryotes (branch lengths shown a...Figure 16.3 Photograph of the yellow slime mold Physarum polycephalum on the bar...Figure 16.4 A small (ca. 1-m) great barracuda in Mudjin Harbor, Middle Caicos Is...Figure 16.5 Nomarski interference micrograph of the baker’s yeast Saccharomyces ...Figure 16.6 Photograph of common turtle grass in the shallow waters off Bermuda....Figure 16.7 Photograph of Irish moss, Chondrus crispus, not to be confused with ...Figure 16.8 Phase-contrast micrograph of Navicula sp. (Source: Texas Tech Univer...Figure 16.9 Phase-contrast micrograph of Phytophthora infestans. The lemon-shape...Figure 16.10 Phase-contrast micrograph of a Vorticella sp., the bell-shaped orga...Figure 16.11 Aerial photograph of Florida red tide. (Source: P. Schmidt, Charlot...Figure 16.12 Ernst Haeckel’s classic drawings of foraminiferan tests. (This is o...Figure 16.13 Dark-field micrograph of Globigerina bulloides, a living relative o...Figure 16.14 Ernst Haeckel’s classic drawings of radiolarian tests. (Again, this...Figure 16.15 Micrograph (left) and cross-sectional diagram (right) of Hexacontiu...Figure 16.16 Micrograph of Euglypha strigosa. (Courtesy of Eugen Lehle, Wikimedi...Figure 16.17 Phase-contrast micrograph of Reclinomonas americana. (Image supplie...Figure 16.18 Trypanosoma brucei in the blood of a sleeping sickness patient. (So...Figure 16.19 The life cycle of trypanosomes. (Adapted from the Centers for Disea...Figure 16.20 Giardia lamblia (a.k.a. G. intestinalis) from stool. (Courtesy of J...Figure 16.21 Streblomastix strix scanning electron micrograph (1) and cross sect...
18 Chapter 17Figure 17.1 Escherichia coli being infected by bacteriophage lambda. (Courtesy o...Figure 17.2 Transfer of F plasmid from donor to recipient. doi:10.1128/978155581...Figure 17.3 Transfer of bacteriophage M13 from donor to recipient. doi:10.1128/9...Figure 17.4 Electron micrograph of bacteriophage Mu. (Reprinted from Inman RB, S...Figure 17.5 Very schematic view of the life cycle of bacteriophage/transposon Mu...Figure 17.6 The rice yellow mottle virus-associated viroid: not its genome, the ...Figure 17.7 Tobacco ringspot virus satellite RNA-S replication. doi:10.1128/9781...Figure 17.8 Electron micrograph of mimivirus. (Courtesy of Didier Raoult.) doi:1...Figure 17.9 Mimivirus (MV)-infected amoeba. Note the “virus factory” (VF), from ...Figure 17.10 Sheep with an “itchy” form of scrapie. (Courtesy of the University ...Figure 17.11 Light micrograph of a stained thin section of brain from a cow with...Figure 17.12 Ribbon diagrams of PrPc (normal, left) and PrPSc (diseased, right)....
19 Chapter 18Figure 18.1 Octopus Spring, Yellowstone National Park. doi:10.1128/9781555818517...Figure 18.2 Pink filaments in the outflow of Octopus Spring. doi:10.1128/9781555...Figure 18.3 Isolation of a single cell by using optical tweezers. doi:10.1128/97...
20 Chapter 19Figure 19.1 A clump of Riftia near a deep-sea hydrothermal vent. (From Dworkin M...Figure 19.2 Google Earth view of the Indian Ocean. The site of the hydrothermal ...Figure 19.3 Crysomallon squamiferum, the deep-sea hydrothermal vent scaly snail....Figure 19.4 The chimera decorating an Apulia dish at the Louvre (Source: Wikimed...Figure 19.5 The generation of chimeras by the priming of PCR products from abort...Figure 19.6 An old-growth tree community. (Courtesy of Piotr Skubisz/Fotolia.) d...Figure 19.7 Locations of the primers and amplified regions of the SSU rRNA. The ...Figure 19.8 Graphical description of Unifrac. (Reprinted from Lozupone C, Knight...Figure 19.9 Graphical descriptions of how principal-component analysis (PCoA) an...
21 Chapter 20Figure 20.1 Nanoarchaeum equitans stained with a specific Texas Red-labeled FISH...Figure 20.2 Typical wastewater treatment process. doi:10.1128/9781555818517.ch20...
22 Chapter 21Figure 21.1 Diagrammatic representation of the DGGE process. Note that this diag...Figure 21.2 Geyser at the Daggyai Tso geothermal region of Tibet. (Courtesy of M...Figure 21.3 How t-RFLP works. The restriction map of an example SSU rRNA gene is...Figure 21.4 Deconvolution of sequence identities from multiple restriction diges...Figure 21.5 Real-time PCR. The top panel shows the result of a real-time PCR exp...
23 Chapter 22Figure 22.1 NCBI Genome Browser view of the SAR86 cosmid EBAC31A08 sequence. Eac...Figure 22.2 Overview of the SIP process. (Second panel reprinted from Gallagher ...Figure 22.3 A Beckman TLA 100.2 rotor, capable of carrying as many as 10 4-ml sa...Figure 22.4 Images of the unicellular eukaryotes identified in this paper. [Sour...
24 Chapter 23Figure 23.1 Assembling contigs into complete genomes. Primers (black) directed o...Figure 23.2 Placement of Thermotoga maritima in rRNA-based trees, relative to wh...Figure 23.3 Genomics versus metagenomics. (DNA panels: Bruce Chassey Laboratory,...
25 Chapter 24Figure 24.1 Geological time scale. (Source: Geological Society of America.) doi:...Figure 24.2 The three-domain tree, the last common ancestor, and how these might...Figure 24.3 Biochemical evolution may have been very rapid early in evolutionary...Figure 24.4 The Miller-Urey apparatus. Mixtures of potential primordial Earth at...Figure 24.5 The primordial sandwich hypothesis, progressing from left to right. ...
