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43. Material nouns and abstract nouns are always singular. When such words take a plural ending, they lose their identity, and go over to other classes (Secs. 15 and 17).

44. Proper nouns are regularly singular, but may be made plural when we wish to speak of several persons or things bearing the same name; e.g., the Washingtons, the Americas.

45. Some words are usually singular, though they are plural in form. Examples of these are, optics, economics, physics, mathematics, politics, and many branches of learning; also news, pains (care), molasses, summons, means: as—

Politics, in its widest extent, is both the science and the art of government.—Century Dictionary.

So live, that when thy summons comes, etc.—Bryant.

It served simply as a means of sight.—Prof. Dana.

Means plural.

Two words, means and politics, may be plural in their construction with verbs and adjectives:—

Words, by strongly conveying the passions, by those means which we have already mentioned, fully compensate for their weakness in other respects.—Burke.

With great dexterity these means were now applied.—Motley.

By these means, I say, riches will accumulate.—Goldsmith.

Politics plural.

Cultivating a feeling that politics are tiresome.—G. W. Curtis.

The politics in which he took the keenest interest were politics scarcely deserving of the name.—Macaulay.

Now I read all the politics that come out.—Goldsmith.

46. Some words have no corresponding singular.

 aborigines

 amends

 annals

 assets

 antipodes

 scissors

 thanks

 spectacles

 vespers

 victuals

 matins

 nuptials

 oats

 obsequies

 premises

 bellows

 billiards

 dregs

 gallows

 tongs

Occasionally singular words.

Sometimes, however, a few of these words have the construction of singular nouns. Notice the following:—

They cannot get on without each other any more than one blade of a scissors can cut without the other.—J. L. Laughlin.

A relic which, if I recollect right, he pronounced to have been a tongs.—Irving.

Besides this, it is furnished with a forceps.—Goldsmith.

The air—was it subdued when … the wind was trained only to turn a windmill, carry off chaff, or work in a bellows?—Prof. Dana.

In Early Modern English thank is found.

What thank have ye?—Bible

47. Three words were originally singular, the present ending -s not being really a plural inflection, but they are regularly construed as plural: alms, eaves, riches.

two plurals.

48. A few nouns have two plurals differing in meaning.

 brother—brothers (by blood), brethren (of a society or church).

 cloth—cloths (kinds of cloth), clothes (garments).

 die—dies (stamps for coins, etc.), dice (for gaming).

 fish—fish (collectively), fishes (individuals or kinds).

 genius—geniuses (men of genius), genii (spirits).

 index—indexes (to books), indices (signs in algebra).

 pea—peas (separately), pease (collectively).

 penny—pennies (separately), pence (collectively).

 shot—shot (collective balls), shots (number of times fired).

In speaking of coins, twopence, sixpence, etc., may add -s, making a double plural, as two sixpences.

One plural, two meanings.

49. Other words have one plural form with two meanings—one corresponding to the singular, the other unlike it.

 custom—customs: (1) habits, ways; (2) revenue duties.

 letter—letters: (1) the alphabet, or epistles; (2) literature.

 number—numbers: (1) figures; (2) poetry, as in the lines—

I lisped in numbers, for the numbers came. —Pope.

Tell me not, in mournful numbers. —Longfellow.

Numbers also means issues, or copies, of a periodical.

 pain—pains: (1) suffering; (2) care, trouble,

 part—parts: (1) divisions; (2) abilities, faculties.

Two classes of compound words.

50. Compound words may be divided into two classes:—

(1) Those whose parts are so closely joined as to constitute one word. These make the last part plural.

 courtyard

 dormouse

 Englishman

 fellow-servant

 fisherman

 Frenchman

 forget-me-not

 goosequill

 handful

 mouthful

 cupful

 maidservant

 pianoforte

 stepson

 spoonful

 titmouse

(2) Those groups in which the first part is the principal one, followed by a word or phrase making a modifier. The chief member adds -s in the plural.

 aid-de-camp

 attorney at law

 billet-doux

 commander in chief

 court-martial

 cousin-german

 father-in-law

 knight-errant

 hanger-on

NOTE.—Some words ending in -man are not compounds of the English word man, but add -s; such as talisman, firman, Brahman, German, Norman, Mussulman, Ottoman.

51. Some groups pluralize both parts of the group; as man singer, manservant, woman servant, woman singer.

Two methods in use for names with titles.

52. As to plurals of names with titles, there is some disagreement among English writers. The title may be plural, as the Messrs. Allen, the Drs. Brown, the Misses Rich; or the name may be pluralized.

The former is perhaps more common in present-day use, though the latter is often found; for example—

Then came Mr. and Mrs. Briggs, and then the three Miss Spinneys, then Silas Peckham.—Dr. Holmes.

Our immortal Fielding was of the younger branch of the Earls of Denbigh, who drew their origin from the Counts of Hapsburgh.—Gibbon.

The Miss Flamboroughs were reckoned the best dancers in the parish.—Goldsmith.

The Misses Nettengall's young ladies come to the Cathedral too.—Dickens.

The Messrs. Harper have done the more than generous thing by Mr. Du Maurier.—The Critic.

53. A number of foreign words have been adopted into English without change of form. These are said to be domesticated, and retain their foreign plurals.

Others have been adopted, and by long use have altered their power so as to conform to English words. They are then said to be naturalized, or Anglicized, or Englished.

Domesticated words.

The domesticated words may retain the original plural. Some of them have a secondary English plural in -s or -es.