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Medieval Missionaries

No Christian would deny that missionary work is part of the fundamental charter of the Christian Church. The call to “go therefore and make disciples of all nations” (Mt 28:19) echoes throughout the centuries as Jesus’ last and greatest charge, and Christians of every generation have responded to it generously. The bold example of the original apostles, especially the globetrotting St. Paul, served to inspire hundreds of missionaries during the patristic period, including great names like St. Patrick, the Apostle of Ireland, and St. Martin of Tours. By the close of the patristic age, churches had been planted from Ethiopia to Ireland, from Spain to India.

Yet the medieval period brought new missionary challenges. The “barbarian” immigrants, mostly of Germanic races, had flooded the European continent from the northeast, carrying with them their devotion to pagan gods and hostility to the Catholic religion of their Roman adversaries. Even as these were receiving the first seeds of the Christian religion, new fiercely pagan immigrants arrived in the form of Vikings and Magyars.

To complicate matters further, the initial missionary successes among the barbarians had been carried out by non-Catholic missionaries, the heretical Arians, who denied the divinity of Christ. Then there was the problem of Islam, which had overcome the Christian communities in Asia and North Africa by the eighth century. As for mainland Europe, while there were certainly still scattered communities of Catholic Christians, the institutional structures of the Church had been shattered by the invasions: many Christians had not seen clergy for decades and thus lapsed easily back into the pagan superstitions of their past.

In short, by the time of the great missionary awakenings of the seventh century, many among the Christian leadership probably saw themselves as starting from scratch, re-evangelizing an utterly de-Christianized continent.

In some ways medieval missionary work looks very different from the way it is typically carried on today. In the Middle Ages there was a shared cultural assumption that the general population would hold the same religion as the ruler, so a common pattern resurfaces where the conversion of a king would result in the mass baptisms of a nation’s entire population.

Another cultural assumption was that a religious figure would legitimize his message by performing miracles, often “outperforming” the representatives of rival religions, as Elijah did on Mount Carmel (see 1 Kgs 18), or Moses before the Pharaoh (Ex 7). Further, because the primary religious alternative to Christianity was paganism, which the New Testament itself describes as demonic in inspiration (1 Cor 10:20), Christian missionaries were often seen as striving against Satanic powers, winning souls from devil-worship. These patterns or themes are, it seems, rarely stressed today.

But in other ways the missionary work of the Middle Ages looks very familiar to us. Then as now, the task of evangelizing was usually combined with the task of civilizing, so that missionaries would spend as much time teaching agricultural methods and basic literacy and providing medical care as they did preaching the Gospel. Also, we see medieval missionaries wrestling with the question of inculturation, or how Christianity would fit into distinctive cultures, balancing a respect for the inherent goodness of every culture with the need to preserve the essential message of the Gospel without watering it down.

Readers will also note how the preaching of the Gospel is most effective when it is combined with a pattern of generosity, charity, and sincere holiness on the part of the missionaries who bring it. And finally, in the Middle Ages as today, missionary work is sustainable only when it is part and parcel of a larger effort to establish lasting Church structures—schools, seminaries, and charitable institutions, for example—rather than being seen as the conversion of individual souls.

Although tens of thousands of individuals probably devoted their lives to missionary work in the Middle Ages, the constraints of space permit the treatment of only a handful. We will first meet St. Columba, a standout among the Irish seafaring saints; then the three dominant figures who worked under the patronage of the bishop of Rome and the protection of the Frankish kingdom: St. Augustine of Canterbury (the Apostle to the English), St. Willibrord (the Apostle to the Frisians), and St. Boniface (the Apostle to the Germans); and, finally, Sts. Cyril and Methodius, the Greek brothers who missionized the Slavic peoples in the East.

Together, a study of these figures shows us not only how Christians won thousands of souls for the kingdom of heaven, but how the Christian Church built and shaped Western civilization in the process.

St. Columba (521–597)

It is not without reason that the Scots carried the relics of St. Columba ahead of their armies in the Scottish Wars for Independence. This was a saint, after all, whose missionary career was launched when he was exiled from his Irish homeland for instigating too many brawls. He had first gotten into trouble when he picked a fight with his teacher, St. Finnian, over whether he deserved to keep a copy of the psalter he had been assigned to copy: several men died in the ensuing scuffle. Shortly afterward, he ended up in the middle of a blood feud which broke out at a sporting event, and which resulted in the death of an Irish prince. It should surprise no one that Columba used a stone as a pillow.

Columba’s early life actually fits neatly into the Irish tradition of the peregrini, or exiles. Irish Christianity was known for its harsh standards for penance: it was not unusual for those who engaged in mortal sin in the Middle Ages to be publicly flogged as penance. And those who had carried out particularly egregious sins often volunteered to undergo what, for the Irishman, is the greatest punishment of all—self-banishment from Ireland. Thus at the age of forty-four Columba, presumably in penance for his violent past, set sail with twelve companions in a wicker boat covered with animal skins.

Landing in nearby Scotland, Columba returned to the boat and cast off again, complaining that he could still see his homeland from the first landing spot. When finally out of sight of his beloved Ireland, Columba began preaching the Gospel to the native barbarians (the Picts), whose king responded by donating the island of Iona to the monks. The monastery they built there became the center of Scottish Christianity, spawning numerous other monasteries across the country and eventually transforming itself into a school for missionaries.

We know precious little about Columba’s life except for the vast number of miracles that are attributed to him by his biographers, so many that one would think he did little else with his time. Many of these miracle stories are rather incredible, though without at least some historical basis such traditions would certainly never have sprung up. Many of the stories reflect the agrarian culture of Scotland (blessing crops to increase their fertility) and the scholarly work of the monks (detecting grammatical errors in books without opening them).

Columba and his Irish monks, the heirs of a brilliant Latin education—it is said that, at any time, three thousand scholars could be found studying under St. Finnian, Columba’s teacher—brought this literary culture to Scotland. Columba’s biographer claims that he wrote more than three hundred books by hand and died while transcribing a book.

Some remark ought to be made about the “style” of Christianity brought to Great Britain. While St. Augustine of Canterbury had brought Christianity to England directly from Rome, Irish—or Celtic—Christianity had developed in almost complete isolation from Rome, cut off from any communication with the rest of worldwide Christianity. Thus the Christianity Columba brought to Scotland had several distinctive features: most importantly, abbots, rather than bishops, oversaw religious matters in geographic regions of the country, and Easter was celebrated on a different date from its calculations in Rome.

Although often described as non-papal, the Irish had a great esteem for the bishop of Rome—they simply hadn’t heard from him in centuries! But as a consequence, much of the literature on English Christianity during this period describes the rather unedifying feuding between so-called Roman and Celtic missionaries.

Columba Comes to Scotland

The English monastic scholar St. Bede makes only brief mention of St. Columba, in connection with the founding of the monastery at Iona. But Bede draws attention to certain distinctive, Celtic features of Columba’s communities which were different from the English customs he learned from St. Augustine of Canterbury’s Roman tradition—namely, the different way of calculating Easter and the tendency of priest-abbots, rather than bishops, to govern churches. (From Bede, Ecclesiastical History of the English People)

In the year of our Lord 565 … there came into Britain from Ireland a famous priest and abbot, marked as a monk by habit and manner of life, whose name was Columba, to preach the word of God to the provinces of the northern Picts…. Columba came into Britain in the ninth year of the reign of Bridius, who was the son of Meilochon, and the powerful king of the Pictish nation, and he converted that nation to the faith of Christ by his preaching and example.

In this way he also received from them the gift of an island [Iona] on which to found a monastery. It is not a large island, but contains about five families, according to the English computation; his successors hold it to this day. He was also buried there when he died at the age of seventy-seven, about thirty-two years after he came into Britain to preach. Before he crossed over into Britain, he had built a famous monastery in Ireland, which, from the great number of oaks, is in the Scottish tongue called Derry—The Field of Oaks.

From both these monasteries, many others had their beginning through his disciples, both in Britain and Ireland; but the island monastery where his body lies has the pre-eminence among them all.

That island has for its ruler an abbot, who is a priest, to whose jurisdiction all the province is subjected, and even the bishops, contrary to the usual method. This is according to the example of their first teacher Columba, who was not a bishop, but a priest and monk, of whose life and discourses some records are said to be preserved by his disciples.

But whatever he was himself, this we know for certain concerning him, that he left successors renowned for their chastity, their love of God, and observance of monastic rules. It is true they employed doubtful cycles in fixing the time of Easter, since no one brought them the relevant decrees of councils, because of their being so far away from the rest of the world; but they earnestly practiced such works of piety and chastity as they could learn from the prophets, the Gospels, and the apostolic writings.

The Mighty Miracles of St. Columba in Scotland

Columba’s primary rivals were the pagan Druids, who fought hard to keep Christianity out of Scotland. Of the hundreds of miracle stories that circulated about Columba, many emphasize his demonstration of the superior power of the Christian God, over and against that of the pagan gods of the Druids. One seventh-century story has Columba driving a monster out of Loch Ness, and is often credited as the first sighting of “Nessie”! (From Adamnan’s Life of Columba, Founder of Hy)

While the blessed man was stopping for some days in the province of the Picts, he heard that there was a fountain famous amongst this pagan people, which foolish men, having their senses blinded by the devil, worshiped as a god. For those who drank of this fountain, or purposely washed their hands or feet in it, were struck by demonic power, and went home either leprous or blinded, or at least suffering from some kind of weakness. By all these things the pagans were seduced, and paid divine honors to the fountain.

Having heard about this, the saint one day went up to the fountain fearlessly; on seeing this, the Druids, whom he had often sent away from him vanquished and confounded, were greatly rejoiced, thinking that he would suffer like others from the touch of that deadly water. But having first raised his holy hand and invoked the name of Christ, he washed his hands and feet; and then with his companions, drank of the water he had blessed. And from that day the demons departed from the fountain; and not only was it not allowed to injure any one, but even many diseases amongst the people were cured by this same fountain, after it had been blessed and washed in by the saint….

On another occasion also, when the blessed man was living for some days in the province of the Picts, he had to cross the Ness River. When he reached its banks, he saw some of the inhabitants burying an unfortunate man, who had been seized while swimming and bitten cruelly by a monster that lived in the water, as he learned from those who were burying the man … The blessed man, on hearing this, was not at all afraid…. The monster, far from being satisfied, was only hungry for more prey. Lying at the bottom of the stream, when it felt the water disturbed by those above, the monster suddenly rushed out, giving an awful roar with its mouth wide open….

Observing this, while all the rest, brothers as well as strangers, were stupefied with terror, the blessed man raised his holy hand, and invoking the name of God, formed the saving sign of the cross in the air. He commanded the ferocious monster…. “Thou shalt go no further, nor touch the man; go back with all speed.”… Then the brothers, seeing that the monster had gone back … were struck with admiration, and gave glory to God in the blessed man. And even the pagan barbarians who were present were forced by the greatness of this miracle, which they themselves had seen, to praise the God of the Christians….

On a certain day after the events recorded in the above chapters, a Druid named Broichan, while talking with the saint, said to him: “Tell me, Columba, when are you planning to set sail?” The saint replied, “I intend to begin my voyage after three days, if God permits me, and preserves my life.” Broichan said, “On the contrary, you will not be able to, for I can make the winds unfavorable to your voyage, and cause a great darkness to surround you.” The saint replied, “The almighty power of God rules all things, and in His name and under His guiding providence all our actions are directed.”

What more should I say? That same day the saint, accompanied by a large number of followers, went to Loch Ness as he had determined. Then the Druids began to rejoice, seeing that it had become very dark, and that the wind was very violent and contrary. (We should not be surprised at this: we know that God sometimes allows them, with the aid of evil spirits, to raise storms and agitate the sea.)

Our Columba, therefore, seeing that the sea was violently stirred up, and that the wind was most unfavorable for his voyage, called on Christ the Lord and set out in his small boat; and while the sailors hesitated, he all the more confidently ordered them to raise the sails against the wind. No sooner was this order carried out, while the whole crowd was looking on, than the ship ran against the wind with extraordinary speed. And after a short time, the wind, which until then had been against them, shifted to help them on their voyage, to the intense astonishment of all. And thus throughout the remainder of that day the light breeze continued most favorable, and the ship of the blessed man was carried safely to the port he was seeking.

A Hymn to God the Creator

The astonishing miracles for which Columba was remembered should not cause us to forget his work in spreading art, literacy, and education. Scotland was also devoid of any developed intellectual culture, and the Irish missionaries brought with them the Latin intellectual culture they had learned from Catholic missionaries from the days of St. Patrick. The following is a hymn written by Columba, called “Altus Prosator”: it is “abecedarian,” meaning that, at least in the original Latin, each stanza begins with a different letter of the alphabet.

High Creator, Unbegotten,

Ancient of Eternal days,

Unbegun ere all beginning,

Him, the world’s one source, we praise:

God who is, and God who shall be:

All that was and is before:

Him with Christ the Sole-Begotten,

And the Spirit we adore,

Co-eternal, one in glory.

Evermore and evermore:—

Not Three Gods are They we worship.

But the Three which are the One,

God, in Three most glorious Persons:—

Other saving Faith is none.

* * *

All good angels and archangels,

Powers and Principalities,

Virtues, Thrones, His will created—

Grades and orders of the skies,

That the majesty and goodness

Of the Blessed Trinity

In its ever bounteous largesse

Never might inactive be;

Having thus wherewith to glory.

All the wide world might adore

The high Godhead’s sole-possession

Everywhere and evermore.

* * *

God, the Lord Most High, foreseeing

Nature’s concord full and sweet.

Molded Heaven and Earth and Ocean

To one harmony complete:

Sprang the grasses, fair unfolding.

Copses burgeoned in the sun:

Beamed the sunlight, starlight, moonlight,

Firelight: all of need was done—

Birds for brake, and fish for waters.

Wild or tame kine for the sward—

Last, the highest, first created,

Man, Creation’s crown and lord.

* * *

When together, ethereal wonder,

Shine the Stars, the Angels sing;

To th’ Immensity’s Designer,

Host on host, their anthems ring:

Songs right meet for adoration,

Glorious harmonies they raise;

Since they move not from their courses

Never-ending is their praise.

Noble concert in the highest

Is their offering full and free:—

’Tis of love’s sincerest rapture

Not of natural decree.

* * *

From the Lord the rain’s soft showerings

Ever fall at need below:

Closely stored behind their barriers

Lest their bounty overflow:

Slowly, surely fertilizing,

Never failing at His will.

They as if from breast maternal

O’er the earth their balm distill:

So the rivers in their season.

From the winter to the spring.

To the autumn from the summer

Their inflowings ever bring.

St. Columba’s Legacy: Celtic vs. Roman Christianity

The Irish (Celtic) missions penetrating England from the northwest and the Roman missions penetrating from the southeast were destined to clash. In most matters they were identical, but on several minor points—such as the date of celebrating Easter—they differed sharply, mainly because the Irish Church had developed in isolation for centuries, with virtually no contact from the rest of Europe. St. Bede describes how England settled the matter, by a debate about which saint was greater—Columba or Peter! (From Bede, Ecclesiastical History of the English People)

At this time a significant and fiercely debated question arose about the celebration of Easter: those Christians from Kent or France claimed that the Irish celebrated Easter on a day differently than the custom of the universal church…. This had the unfortunate consequence that Easter was celebrated twice every year in England, and sometimes when the king, having ended his fast, was celebrating Easter, the queen and her followers were still fasting on Palm Sunday…. This reached the ears of the rulers, King Oswy and his son Alchfrid … who decided that this and other ecclesiastical questions should be settled once and for all at a council. The kings, both father and son, came there, and the bishops, the priests, and an interpreter….

King Oswy first made an opening speech in which he said that it was proper for those who served one God to observe one rule of life, and as they all expected the same kingdom in heaven, so they should not differ in the celebration of the heavenly mysteries. Rather, they should inquire which was the truer tradition, so that it might be followed by everyone together….

Wilfrid, having been ordered by the king to speak, began in this way: “The Easter which we keep, we saw celebrated by all at Rome, where the blessed Apostles, Peter and Paul, lived, taught, suffered, and were buried; we saw the same done by all in Italy and in France, when we traveled through those countries for the purpose of study and prayer. We found it observed in Africa, Asia, Egypt, Greece, and all the world, wherever the Church of Christ is spread abroad, among different nations and tongues, at one and the same time; save only among those here and those who join them in their stubbornness—the Picts and the Britons, in these remote islands of the ocean, and only in part of these islands, who foolishly insist on contradicting all the rest of the world.”…

To this Colman rejoined…. “Are you suggesting that our most reverend Father Columba and his successors, men beloved by God, who kept Easter after the same manner, judged or acted contrary to the sacred writings? On the contrary, there were many among them, whose holiness was affirmed by heavenly signs and miracles which they worked, whom I, for my part, do not doubt to be saints, and whose life, customs, and discipline I never cease to follow.”…

Wilfrid responded, “If that Columba of yours (and, I may say, ours also, if he was Christ’s servant) was a holy man and powerful in miracles, yet could he be preferred before the most blessed chief of the Apostles, to whom our Lord said, ‘You are Peter, and upon this rock I will build my Church, and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it, and I will give to you the keys of the kingdom of Heaven’?”

When Wilfrid had ended thus, the king said, “Is it true, Colman, that these words were spoken to Peter by our Lord?” He answered, “It is true, O king!” Then said he, “Can you show any such power given to your Columba?” Colman answered, “None.”… Then the king concluded, “And I also say unto you, that he is the doorkeeper, and I will not decide against him, but I desire, as far as I know and am able, in all things to obey his laws, for if I do otherwise, I may come to the gates of the kingdom of Heaven, and there should be none to open them, since I have made an enemy of the one who has the keys.”

The king having said this, all who were seated there or standing by, both great and small, gave their assent, and renouncing the less perfect custom, quickly accepted the better one.

St. Augustine of Canterbury (d. 604)

Although we know little or no personal detail about the life of St. Augustine of Canterbury, we do know that there would probably never have been an English Church without him. From the sources we get the impression of an unassuming man content to work quietly in the fields, patiently building an edifice that would dominate the English landscape for over a millennium.

Although Christian missionaries had reached the native Britons in England by the early fourth century, the Church there was in tatters by the sixth. The withdrawal of Roman legions in 410 to protect the Imperial capital had led to an immediate invasion by the Saxons, as ruthless in their pagan religion as in their barbaric behavior. The few Christians who lingered among the now-conquered Britons were disheartened and gave up all hope of convincing their conquerors to accept the Gospel. While the Irish had some luck missionizing the northern coasts, they could not penetrate the interior. It seemed that all hope for a Christian England was lost.

Yet that great missionary pope, St. Gregory the Great, would not be daunted. A legend traces his brainchild of an English mission to an encounter with English slaves in a Roman slave market: Gregory nourished a lifelong scheme to buy slaves, free them, convert them, and send them back to their homelands as missionaries. Struck with the beauty of the fair-haired English, Gregory was horrified to hear that they had no missionaries among them. He thus hatched the most carefully conceived and well-organized missionary strategy since the days of St. Paul, forming a missionary team of forty handpicked monks from his own Roman abbey under the leadership of Augustine, their prior at the time.

Augustine was the right man for the job. His sharp wit, his delicate pastoral touch, and the natural knack for administration he had shown as prior would all be necessary in the mission field. Augustine’s first task was to establish a support network in the nearest Christian community, bringing his team to France to gather resources, including interpreters and local information. His next task was to rally the spirits of his team: the horror stories they heard in France of the savageries of the Saxons made the team unwilling to go on!

Next, after convincing the team to continue, he carefully plotted out the mission strategy. It may have been Augustine’s choice to begin the mission in Kent, where rumor had it that the local king, Ethelbert, was sympathetic to Christianity, having wed a Christian wife. Plus, situated next to the channel, Kent would put the team in close geographical proximity to its French support network. Augustine’s tactic of working closely with the royal couple meant it was only a matter of time before the king—with the gentle pressure of his wife—converted, and once the king converted, so would the nation. Within a year Augustine was able to baptize ten thousand Saxons in a Christmas ceremony.

From this point onward, Augustine left a profound legacy in the English Church. He fostered a strong devotion to the pope among the English—in fact, he considered his team an extension of the papacy itself, constantly asking the pope for advice on missionary strategies. A Benedictine monk himself, he quickly built a monastery on English soil, and with it a school for training missionaries, laying the foundations for an English monastic and missionary tradition that would reshape Europe.

His correspondence shows a profound sensitivity to local customs and a willingness to allow English Christianity to take its own distinctive cultural shape, rather than be supplanted by Roman Christianity. Perhaps he learned from his own mistakes: his failure to stand up to greet Irish missionaries during a meeting, probably due to his Roman aristocratic background, was a huge cultural faux pas and caused a decades-long schism between the Roman and Irish churches. Nonetheless, the Apostle to the English has always been seen as the founder of Christianity in England and a model missionary.

The Launching of the English Mission

Bede, an English monastic scholar, tells of how Pope Gregory the Great first conceived of the plan for a mission to England, its rocky start, and its gradual successes. (From Bede, Ecclesiastical History of the English People)

Around AD 596, Gregory, a man famous for his holy life and solid education, became bishop of Rome, an office he held for over thirteen years. Through divine inspiration, he sent that servant of God, Augustine, along with several other God-fearing monks, to preach the word of God to the English nation.

But as soon as they had begun that work in obedience to the pope’s commands, they suddenly were seized with fear and planned to return home, terrified of proceeding to a fierce, barbaric, and pagan nation, whose language they did not even know. In unanimous agreement that this would be the safest course, they sent back Augustine—who was supposed to be ordained a bishop in England if the mission were a success—to beg St. Gregory that they might be allowed to abandon such a dangerous, burdensome and risky journey. The pope replied by sending the entire group a letter, insisting that they proceed with their labor on behalf of God’s word, trusting in the assistance of Almighty God….

Augustine, encouraged by Gregory’s letter, returned to the work of God’s word, and arrived at Britain with nearly forty companions and Frankish interpreters. The mighty Ethelbert was at that time king of Kent…. They sent a message to him, indicating that they came from Rome and brought a joyful message of eternal life in heaven with God for anyone who was willing to listen to it. The king heard this and ordered them to stay put for a while until he could decide what to do about them. For he knew about the Christian religion, having a Christian wife from France named Bertha: she had been raised a Christian and married Ethelbert only on the condition that she could continue to practice [the Faith].

A few days later he came to them, inviting them to sit in his presence in the open air. (He was afraid to meet them indoors because of an ancient superstition that, if he did so, their magical powers might be able to overpower him. But they brought divine power, not magic.) They carried a silver cross for a banner, an image of our Lord and Savior painted on a board, singing a litany and praying to the Lord for the salvation of themselves and the English people.

After Augustine had preached the word of life to the king and his attendants, the king answered: “You speak pleasantly and make attractive promises, but they are new to us and confusing, and I cannot accept them, since this would mean breaking with ancient English custom. But because you have traveled so far to my kingdom, and seem very eager and sincere in your desire to share this message, I won’t harass you, but will act as your host, providing you with supplies and allowing you to preach and gain any converts who will listen to you.” So the king allowed them to stay in the city of Canterbury, and gave them liberty to preach.

As soon as they moved into the residence he gave them, they began to imitate the practices of the early Church: frequent prayer, fasting, preaching to as many as possible, practicing self-denial, eating only the food they needed for subsistence, which they received from their converts, living exactly in the way which matched the message they were preaching, always willing to suffer and even die for the truth they preached. Because of this, several believed and were baptized, admiring the simplicity and innocence of their life, and the beauty of their teaching … until eventually the king himself was converted to their faith…. After he was baptized, greater numbers began to gather to hear the word, abandoning their pagan rituals, believing and joining the unity of Christ’s Church. The king encouraged such conversions but did not force anyone to convert: he contented himself with showing more personal affection to those who did, because he had learned from Augustine and his companions that serving Christ ought to be done voluntarily, not by force.

One Church, Many Customs

Augustine maintained a steady line of communication with his patron, Pope Gregory, in Rome, asking him questions about Church policy and allowing the pope to influence the basic shape of the newly born English Church. One question that confused Augustine was the sharp divergence in customs between Christians in Rome, where he had been raised, and those in France. (Some French Christians had immigrated to England, so at this time England had been influenced by French customs.) As a Roman missionary, how aggressive should he be in forcing the English to accept Roman customs? (From Bede, Ecclesiastical History of the English People)

Augustine’s second question: Even though the Christian faith is one and the same everywhere, why are there different customs in different churches? Why is the Mass said one way in the Roman churches, and another way in the French churches?

Pope Gregory’s answer: You know, my brother, only the customs of the Roman Church in which you were raised. But if you found anything more acceptable to God in any church—Roman, French, or any other—it would make me happy if you made use of it. You should carefully teach the English people, who are very new to Christianity, anything useful you can gather from the various churches. For things are not to be loved for the sake of the places they are found, but places for the sake of good things found in them.

Therefore, you should choose things that are devout, holy, and orthodox from every church, and make them into one body, so to speak, and only after that should you introduce them to the English.

The Slow and Patient Task of the Missionary

Every missionary faces the question of pace: How quickly should one try to move a convert from his false opinions and practices to true ones? Should the convert be pushed to abandon his old life “cold turkey,” all at once, or can he be allowed to take more gradual steps, growing accustomed to his new life more slowly? Pope Gregory gave clear instructions to Augustine that he should opt for a more gradual pace in England, hoping that this would draw in more converts than an all-or-nothing approach. (From Gregory’s Letter no. 76)

I have put a lot of thought into the case of the English. I have decided that their pagan temples should not be destroyed, but only the idols that are inside them. Instead, just sprinkle these temples with holy water, and put new altars in them with Christian relics inside. After all, if the temples are well-built, they can simply be transferred from the worship of idols to that of the true God.

This way, when the people see their beloved temples not destroyed but preserved, they might be more willing to abandon their error. They can continue to visit the places they are comfortable with, and can gradually learn to adore the true God there. Since they have a long habit of offering animal sacrifices to demonic idols, they might be allowed to continue some similar practice, in a different form. For example, on the anniversary of the saints whose relics are in the temple, they might carry out some ceremony using branches from the trees around the temple, once that temple has become a church, and thus celebrate the saint’s feast day.

They might even continue to kill animals, but not to sacrifice them to the devil, but rather to eat them, while giving thanks to God for giving all things to them. In this way, they can outwardly carry out some of the same activities they have always enjoyed doing, while inwardly we can gradually steer their minds toward other enjoyments. The reason is that it is no doubt impossible to remove all bad habits immediately from hardhearted people. Someone who wants to get to a high place must get there by small steps, not by huge leaps.

After all, God treated the people of Israel this way. They had grown accustomed to offering animal sacrifices to demonic idols while in Egypt, and He did not prevent them from offering such sacrifices, but simply instructed them to offer them to himself, in order to change their hearts. In this way, some elements in their sacrificial worship changed, but others remained the same, and since they were offered to God and not to idols, while they may have looked the same as before, they were actually quite different.

St. Willibrord (658–739)

Though little is known of Willibrord’s life, this has not stopped the citizens of Luxembourg from their rather quirky celebration of his life, the annual Procession of Holy Dancers, wherein every year thousands hop in a coordinated dance for a mile to the abbey church at Echternach which Willibrord founded. Perhaps it is an appropriate celebration for the life of a man whose miracles, nearly half of the time, involved the multiplication of wine flasks for festivities.

An Englishman of Saxon stock, Willibrord joined the Benedictines at the young age of fifteen, studying for over a decade under the best and brightest of his day, both in England and in Ireland: he had both St. Egbert and St. Wilfrid for educators. His burning desire to preach to the barbarians in Frisia (modern-day Holland) couldn’t be quenched, however, and in his thirties he journeyed to Utrecht with eleven companions to establish a missionary headquarters there.

Willibrord set the example for later European missionaries by seeking out the military protection of the strongest Catholic kingdom of the day—that of the French rulers Charles Martel and Pepin—and by voluntarily submitting their missionary endeavors to the patronage of the bishop of Rome.

Willibrord struggled to establish a functional church in Frisia, even collaborating with the young St. Boniface for several years. When the pagan king Radbod seized power, however, he destroyed almost all of the churches Willibrord had built, replacing them with pagan shrines and killing any missionary he could lay hands on. Patiently, Willibrord returned and rebuilt the devastated churches once the Frankish king could guarantee his safety.

Though well trained as a scholar, the only confirmed writing we have from Willibrord is a note in the margin of a calendar, where he scribbled the date of his arrival in Frisia. Thankfully, St. Alcuin of York, Willibrord’s blood relative and the greatest scholar of his day, wrote a biography to record Willibrord’s legacy for later generations.

The Beginnings of the Dutch Mission

St. Alcuin’s biography of his relative St. Willibrord shows how the monastic schools of England could become breeding grounds for future missionaries. We also see, in these selections, how French military power served as a necessary support for European missions.

By the age of thirty-three [Willibrord’s] religious fervor had reached such a pitch of intensity that he decided it was not worthwhile to continue to increase his own holiness, unless he could also preach the Gospel to others and increase their holiness as well. He had heard that in the northern regions of the world “the harvest is plentiful, but the laborers are few” (Lk 10:2). Therefore, in fulfillment of his mother’s dream, Willibrord, knowing only of his own decision, and not of God’s preordination, decided to sail for these parts, so that if God willed it he would bring the light of the Gospel message to those whose unbelief had not been stirred by its warmth.

So he departed on a ship, taking eleven others who shared his enthusiasm for the faith. Some of these companions gained a martyr’s crown through their constant preaching of the Gospel; others later became bishops and have since died in peace, after their labors in the holy work in preaching.

Thus the man of God and his brothers, as we have said, set sail, and after a successful crossing they moored their ships at the mouth of the Rhine River. Then, after resting, they set out for the castle of Utrecht, which lies on the bank of that river, and where some years later, after God had increased the faith of the people, Willibrord built his cathedral church.

But the Frisian people, and Radbod their king, still preferred their pagan practices. So Willibrord set out for France instead and met with its king, Pepin, a man of immense energy, military success and high moral character. Pepin received him respectfully, and not wanting to lose the services of so great a scholar, he invited him to preach within his own kingdom, to uproot idolatry and to teach the newly converted.

The Pope Ordains and Commissions Willibrord

The English Church, founded by the Roman missionary St. Augustine of Canterbury, possessed a strong loyalty to the papacy. It is no surprise, then, that missionaries from England often stopped by Rome for authorization and a blessing from the pope.

After a time, the man of God had carefully visited several places and carried out the task of evangelization, and the seed of life, watered by the dews of heavenly grace, had born great fruit in the hearts of many souls. Then the king of the Franks, pleased with Willibrord’s burning zeal and the extraordinary growth of the Christian faith, which he sought to expand even further, decided to send him to Rome to be ordained a bishop by Pope Sergius, one of the holiest men of that time. In this way, having the apostolic blessing and papal mandate, he would return to preach the Gospel with even greater confidence and vigor….

The pope, warned in advance by a heavenly dream, welcomed Willibrord with great joy and showed him every courtesy. For he saw in Willibrord a sincere faith, a religious devotion, and a profound wisdom. Therefore, he appointed a day for the ordination when all the people could assemble together.

He invited holy priests to take part in the ceremony, and in accordance with apostolic tradition and with great reverence, he publicly ordained him archbishop in the church of St. Peter, prince of the apostles. At the same time he renamed him “Clement” … and whatever he asked for (relics of saints, liturgical vessels, etc.) the pope gave him without hesitation, so that he was sent back to preach the Gospel loaded with gifts and strengthened with the apostolic blessing.

Willibrord Desecrates a Pagan Shrine

Like his protégé, St. Boniface, St. Willibrord had little patience for the pagan superstitions of the German natives. His dismissive treatment of pagan shrines did much, however, to impress the inhabitants, who expected their gods to punish such violators of shrines.

Now while this energetic preacher of God’s Word was continuing his journey he came to a certain island on the Frisian-Danish boundary, which the natives had named Fositeland after a god named Fosite, whom they worshiped and whose temples stood there. The pagans held that place in great awe, so that none of the natives would venture to touch the cattle that fed there, and would only draw water from the spring that bubbled up there in complete silence.

Willibrord was driven ashore on that island by a storm, and had to wait for some days until the wind died down and fair weather made it possible to set sail again. He cared nothing for the superstitious “sacredness” of that spot, or for the savage cruelty of the king, who was said to condemn to the most cruel death those who violated those sacred objects. Instead, Willibrord used the water from the sacred springs to baptize three people in the name of the Blessed Trinity and slaughtered several of the cattle as food for his companions.

When the pagans saw this they expected the strangers to become mad or be struck with sudden death. But they were astounded and terror-stricken when they saw that Willibrord and his companions suffered no harm at all.

St. Boniface (d. 754)

That St. Boniface was hacked to death by a mob of frenzied pagans while preparing for a confirmation service probably surprised no one. As a man of determination, with an iron will, tact and diplomacy had not exactly been his strong suit. Once, when pagan villagers would not stop worshiping an oak tree believed to be sacred to Thor, Boniface snatched up an axe and chopped it down. When he was not (as the villagers had expected) struck by Thor’s lightning, they agreed to convert, but such tactics were not likely to make him many friends.

Boniface, named Winfrid by his parents, was born among the Saxon tribes in England who had been so patiently won for the Church by the efforts of St. Augustine of Canterbury. Sometime after joining a Benedictine monastery over the objections of his parents, he turned down election as its abbot, departing for mainland Germany to preach the Gospel to his kinfolk there, never to return to his native land again. He worked under the tutelage of the elderly missionary St. Willibrord for some years in the forests of the German interior and took up that saint’s mantle upon the latter’s death.

Like most great missionaries, however, Winfrid knew he needed support. St. Augustine of Canterbury had impressed on the English a strong devotion to the papacy, and of his own initiative Winfrid traveled to Rome and sought the pope’s blessing and commission for his missionary endeavors. (It was the pope who, apparently impressed with this missionary’s eagerness, renamed him Boniface, from bonum facere, “to do good.”)

The pope encouraged him to secure the military protection of the French, whose armies could guarantee his safety among the savage German tribes, and it was probably Boniface’s close collaboration with both Rome and the French kings that set the stage for the later alliance which would emerge in the age of Charlemagne.

Boniface worked patiently in the German hinterlands, building church structures from the ground up, establishing monasteries, seminaries, and bishoprics while presiding over Church synods to enforce strict moral standards on local clergy. Boniface’s pattern of convincing entire tribes to convert, often through extraordinary acts like the felling of the sacred oak, and then leaving until later the work of catechesis and Christian instruction, meant that the Christian religion in mainland Europe was often only superficial, with paganism and barbarism lurking just below the surface.

Yet Boniface, known today as the Apostle to the Germans, was a pioneer, furrowing new ground and planting the seeds so that later generations could cultivate and nurture the growth.

The Pope Commissions Boniface as a Missionary

The fateful meeting between Boniface and Pope Gregory II would forge lasting links between the German people and the papacy, links of faith and charity that would bear significant fruit throughout the Middle Ages. (From Willibald’s Life of Boniface)

When [Winfrid] read a letter carried to him by a messenger, he learned that he was summoned to Rome, and in a spirit of complete obedience, he got ready as quickly as he could…. Eventually he came into sight of the walls of Rome, and giving praise and thanks to God on high, he went quickly to the Church of St. Peter, where he strengthened himself in long and earnest prayer. After he had rested his weary limbs for a brief time, he had a message sent to blessed Gregory [II], bishop of the Apostolic See, saying that he had arrived….

A convenient day was fixed for a meeting, and at the appointed time the pope came down to the Basilica of St. Peter the Apostle, and the servant of God was summoned to his presence. After they had exchanged a few words of greeting, the bishop of the Apostolic See asked him some questions on his doctrine—on the creeds, traditions and beliefs of his church….

They discussed and debated many other matters relating to holy religion and the true faith, and in this exchange of views they spent almost the whole day.

At last the pope asked how successful he was in preaching the true faith to a people so rooted in error and sin. On learning that a vast number had been converted from the sacrilegious worship of idols and admitted to the communion of the Church, the pope told him that he intended to ordain him a bishop and set him over people who up to that time had been without a leader to guide them….

When the holy day for the sacred solemnity arrived, which was both the feast day of St. Andrew and the day set aside for his ordination, the holy pope of the Apostolic See ordained him a bishop and gave him the name of Boniface…. He also offered to him and to all his subjects the friendship of the holy Apostolic See from that time on and forever. Also, by means of his most sacred letters, the pope placed the holy man, now strengthened by ordination as a bishop, under the protection and devotion of the glorious leader Charlemagne.

Boniface Fells the Sacred Oak

Whereas St. Augustine of Canterbury had taken a milder approach, preserving and remodeling pagan temples into Christian churches, St. Boniface preferred tough love. His preference for outright destruction of pagan shrines, as a way of testifying to the superior power of the Christian God, was the far more common method. (From Willibald’s Life of Boniface)

Now many of the Hessians who at that time had accepted the Christian faith were confirmed by the grace of the Holy Spirit through the laying on of hands. But others, weaker in spirit, still refused to accept the pure teachings of the Church in their entirety. Moreover, some continued—some secretly, others openly—to offer sacrifices to trees and springs, to inspect the entrails of victims, to practice divination, magic and sorcery, to attend to auguries, auspices and other sacrificial rites, even though others who were more reasonable abandoned all of these pagan customs and committed none of these crimes.

It was on the advice of these latter persons that Boniface endeavored to cut down, at a place called Gaesmere, a certain oak of extraordinary size called the Oak of Jupiter in the old pagan languages. Summoning up all his courage—for a great crowd of pagans stood by, watching and cursing this “enemy of the gods” in their hearts—he cut the first notch. But after the first, superficial cut, the vast trunk of the oak crashed to the ground, shaken by a mighty blast of wind from above, its topmost branches shattering into fragments. As if by God’s will, for the brothers who were there had done nothing to cause it, the oak burst apart into four parts, each of equal length.

At the sight of this extraordinary spectacle, the heathens who had been cursing ceased to do so, and rather believed and praised the Lord. After this, that holy bishop discussed with his brothers, and then built a church from the wood of the oak, dedicating it to St. Peter the Apostle.

The Martyrdom of Boniface

Boniface’s first missionary journey had been to Frisia (modern-day Holland), where the native barbarians were more fierce and savage than any others on the continent. Having had little success, he always dreamed of returning, and as an elderly bishop he finally determined to go back to Frisia, having no doubt he would be killed there. (From Willibald’s Life of Boniface)

When the Lord willed to deliver his servant from the trials of this world and set him free from the vicissitudes of this mortal life, it was decided, under God’s providence, that he should travel in the company of his disciples to Frisia, from which he had departed in body but not in spirit. And this was done so that in dying there he might receive the divine reward in the same place where he had begun his preaching….

This, then, is how he traveled throughout the whole of Frisia, destroying pagan worship and turning people away from their pagan errors by his preaching of the Gospel. The pagan temples and gods were overthrown and churches were built in their place. Many thousands of men, women, and children were baptized by him….

When the faith had finally been firmly planted in Frisia and the glorious end of that saint’s life drew near, he took with him a handpicked group of his personal followers and … set a date when he would confirm through the laying on of hands all those who had recently been baptized….

But events turned out otherwise than expected. When the appointed date arrived and the morning light was breaking through the clouds after sunrise, enemies arrived instead of friends, new executioners instead of new worshipers of the faith. A vast number of foes armed with spears and shields rushed into the camp brandishing their weapons. In the blink of an eye the attendants sprang from the camp to meet them, snatching up weapons here and there to defend the holy band of martyrs (for that is what they would soon be) against the insane fury of the mob.

But the man of God, hearing the shouts and the onrush of the mob, called all his clergy to his side and emerged from his tent, gathering up the relics of the saints that he always carried with him. At once he scolded his attendants and forbade them to continue fighting, saying: “Sons, cease fighting. Lay down your arms, for we are told in the Scriptures not to render evil for good but to overcome evil by good.”….

While he was encouraging his disciples with these words to accept the crown of martyrdom, the frenzied mob of pagans rushed suddenly upon them with swords and every kind of deadly weapon, staining their bodies with their precious blood.

How to Argue with a Pagan

St. Boniface’s close collaborator throughout his life, Bishop Daniel of Winchester, wrote, about 723, to advise him on the best way of arguing with a pagan. Daniel’s advice—don’t argue, just keep asking them questions about their beliefs until they realize just how absurd they are—is timeless. (From Letters of St. Boniface, no. 11)

To Boniface, honored and beloved leader, from Daniel, servant of the people of God.

My joy is great, brother and fellow-bishop, that your good work is finally achieving results. Supported by your deep faith and great courage, you have undertaken to convert pagans whose hearts have until now been stony and barren, and with the Gospel as your plow you have labored tirelessly day after day to transform them into fields fertile for harvest…. Moved by affection and good will, I am taking the liberty of making a few suggestions, in order to show you how, in my opinion, you may overcome with the least possible trouble the resistance of these barbaric people.

Do not start arguing with them about the genealogies of their false gods. Accept their premise that each god and goddess was begotten by other gods through sexual intercourse: then you can point out that, if these gods have a beginning, being born like humans are, they must be human and not gods. Once they admit that their gods have a beginning, you should ask them whether the world had a beginning or whether it has always existed. For before there was a universe, there was no place for the gods to live….

But if they answer that the universe has no beginning, then try to prove otherwise, or simply ask them more questions: Who ruled the universe, then? How did the gods come to rule the universe, if it existed before them? Where did the first gods and goddesses come from? Do the gods and goddesses continue to reproduce? If not, when did they stop, and why? If so, the number of gods must be infinite. If they are, which god is the most powerful? How can we possibly know this? But we had better know, or else we might offend this god, who is more powerful than the rest, by not honoring him.

Ask whether they think that the gods should be worshiped only for the sake of some earthly benefit, or for a future, eternal reward? If for an earthly benefit, point out that pagans are no better off than Christians in earthly benefits, so what good is it to be a pagan? Ask them why their gods even want to be worshiped, if they already rule the universe? Then ask how we know what kind of sacrifices they want, and why they do not choose more suitable sacrifices.

These and similar questions, and many others that it would be tedious to mention, should be put to them, not in an offensive and irritating way, but calmly and with great moderation. From time to time their superstitions should be compared with our Christian doctrines and touched upon indirectly, so that the pagans, more out of confusion than exasperation, may be ashamed of their absurd opinions and may recognize that their offensive rituals and ridiculous legends have not escaped our notice.

They must face this conclusion: If their gods are omnipotent, beneficent, and just, they must reward their worshipers and punish those who despise them. Why then, if they act thus in earthly affairs, do they spare the Christians who cast down their idols and turn away from their worship the inhabitants of practically the entire globe?

Christian Hypocrisy: The Greatest Obstacle to Missionary Work

Boniface’s continuous letters to his supporters reveal that his greatest headaches came not from savage pagans but from misbehaving Christians. These letters are filled with questions as to how to discipline clergy who keep mistresses, bishops who use their offices for monetary gain, and so on. His replacement as bishop had to step down because of his involvement in a violent blood feud with another family. In this letter to a newly elected pope, Boniface complains that rumors of misbehavior of Christians in Rome have caused grumbling among his own congregations, who don’t see why they have to abandon practices that Roman Christians still practice. (From Letters of St. Boniface, no. 27)

To our beloved lord Zacharias, who bears the insignia of the supreme pontificate, from Boniface, a servant of the servants of God.

We confess, Father and Lord, that after we had learned through messengers that your predecessor Gregory, of holy memory, had departed this life, nothing gave us greater comfort and happiness than the knowledge that God had appointed Your Holiness to enforce the canonical decrees and govern the Apostolic See. Kneeling at your feet, we earnestly beg that, as we have been devoted servants and humble disciples to your predecessors in the See of Peter, we may likewise be counted obedient servants, under canon law, of Your Holiness.

It is our firm resolution to preserve the Catholic faith and the unity of the Church of Rome, and I shall continue to urge as many hearers and disciples as God shall grant me on this mission to render obedience to the Apostolic See.

Be it known to you also, Holy Father, that Carloman, Emperor of the Franks, summoned me to his presence and desired me to convoke a synod in that part of the Frankish kingdom which is under his jurisdiction. He promised me that he would reform and reestablish ecclesiastical discipline, which for the past sixty or seventy years has been completely disregarded and despised….

The episcopal sees, which are in the cities, have been given, for the most part, into the possession of avaricious laymen or exploited by adulterous and unworthy clerics for worldly uses…. Among them are bishops who deny the charges of fornication and adultery but who, nevertheless, are shiftless drunkards, addicted to the chase, who march armed into battle and shed with their own hands the blood of Christians and heathens alike.

Since I am recognized as the servant and legate of the Apostolic See, my decisions here and your decisions in Rome ought to be in complete agreement when I send messengers to receive your judgment.

Because the sensual and ignorant Allemanians, Bavarians, and Franks see that some of these abuses which we condemn are rampant in Rome, they think that the priests there allow them, and on that account they reproach us and take bad example. They say that in Rome, near the church of St. Peter, they have seen throngs of people parading the streets at the beginning of January of each year, shouting and singing songs in pagan fashion, loading tables with food and drink from morning until night, and that during that time no man is willing to lend his neighbor fire or tools or anything useful from his own house.

They recount also that they have seen women wearing pagan amulets and bracelets on their arms and legs and offering them for sale. All such abuses witnessed by sensual and ignorant people bring reproach upon us here and frustrate our work of preaching and teaching….

If Your Holiness would put an end to these pagan customs in Rome it would redound to your credit besides promoting the success of our teaching of the faith.

May God protect Your Holiness and may you enjoy health and long life in Christ.

Sts. Cyril (826–869) and Methodius (815–885)

The story of Saints Cyril and Methodius is something of an East-meets-West fairy tale, in which Greek brothers are sent by a Byzantine emperor into Moravia, where conflicts with German clergy lead to their alliance with the Latin pope.

Born in Greece to a high-ranking Byzantine military officer, Cyril and Methodius (originally named Michael and Constantine—as was the custom, they adopted new names upon becoming monks) received the top-notch education suited to such aristocrats. While they were quickly funneled into the Byzantine civil service, they both renounced promising political careers to enter a monastery together. Their illustrious reputations, however, haunted them, and the Byzantine emperor recalled them into public service, pressing them to go on diplomatic missions into Iraq, the Caucuses and ultimately Moravia (modern-day Czech Republic).

It was in Moravia that the brothers earned the legacy that led to their being proclaimed co-patrons of Europe in the Roman Catholic tradition and equal to the apostles in the Eastern Orthodox. Frankish missionaries had labored in Moravia for years without success. Their refusal to allow the Slavic natives to worship in their own languages—they insisted on praying and preaching in Latin—came off as culturally insensitive, and the Moravians suspected an agenda of annexing their nation to the burgeoning Carolingian Empire in the West. The gravest obstacle to a Slavic liturgy, however, was that no written language existed: the phonetic sounds of the Slavic tongue had never been transcribed into a written alphabet.

Knowing Cyril’s gift for languages (he knew Greek, Arabic, and Hebrew), the emperor asked him not only to master the Slavic tongue, but also to write an alphabet for the language and teach it to the Slavs. Cyril set to work, devising the alphabet and undertaking a massive translation project, producing in the end—with the help of his brother—Slavic liturgical books, large portions of the Bible, and even a civil law code. The Cyrillic alphabet, a descendent of Cyril’s, is the basis of numerous modern languages today. The brothers’ mission in Moravia was, therefore, part evangelization and part literacy program.

The brothers’ mission was driven by the notion that the Gospel must be inculturated anew in every culture it enters, taking up and sanctifying, rather than repudiating, the positive elements of that culture, not only language but also customs, symbols, and traditions. The Moravian mission was continually harassed, however, by Frankish clergy who insisted that God could be rightly worshiped only in Latin (or Greek or Hebrew, which they also acknowledged).

The bishop of Rome, however, took the brothers’ side, summoning them to Rome, endorsing the Slavic liturgy, and ordaining Methodius a priest. While Cyril died in Rome, Methodius was encouraged by the pope to expand his mission into vast regions of Austria, Hungary, Serbia, and Croatia, over which the pope eventually gave him jurisdiction as bishop.

The Franks, however, never forgave Methodius for his refusal to Latinize the Slavs, and Methodius spent many of his later years experiencing harassment, exile, and even imprisonment, being freed only upon the stern order of the pope himself. Sadly, his disciples in Eastern Europe were exiled after his death, but they simply carried on the mission work eastward, eventually resulting in the conversion of Russia to Christianity.

Given the legacy of these brothers, then, it is no surprise that they are judged by some as equal to the apostles! (Most contemporaneous texts focus on Cyril rather than Methodius, so he will be the focus of these selections.)

Cyril is Sent to the Slavs

Cyril’s biography reveals the way in which missionary work was closely dependent upon the work of education and translation, so that all peoples could worship God in their own languages. This selection also shows the work of the Byzantine emperor in directing and coordinating mission work in the East. (From Life of Constantine)

While Cyril, that true philosopher, was rejoicing, something happened to him that was entirely unexpected, a more challenging task than he had ever carried out before. For Rastislav, a Moravian prince, under God’s inspiration, had spoken to his princes and the rest of the Slavs and sent word to the Byzantine Emperor Michael, saying: “Our people have rejected our former paganism and now observe Christian laws, but we have no teacher who can teach us the true Christian faith in our own language. So, since God’s law emanates from you into all places of the earth, please also send us a teacher.”

So the emperor called together a council and summoned Cyril, saying to him: “I know you are tired, but I need you to do this. No one else can carry out this task as well as you can.” Cyril replied, “Though I am tired and sick, yet I will go, for they need to be able to write in their own language.”

But the emperor warned him: “My grandfather, my father and many others have tried this, but they all failed. How can we now succeed?… May God give you strength, since He gives all things to those who ask with confidence and opens the door to those who knock” (cf. Lk 11:9).

Cyril then departed and, as was his custom, devoted himself to prayers with others who would join him in his work. And suddenly God—who listens to the prayers of his servants—appeared to him, and at that very moment he began writing [in Slavic]. He wrote out the words of the Gospel, “In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God” and so on (Jn 1:1).

The emperor, hearing this, rejoiced and praised God with his counselors. He sent Cyril out with many gifts, writing a letter to Ratislav to this effect:

“God … who desires all men … to come to the knowledge of the truth” (1 Tm 2:4), and attain greater dignity, has seen your faith and efforts. Our goal is to teach you to read and write in your own language, which has never been done before: in this way you may take your place among the great nations who praise God in their own language.

To this end, we are sending a holy and orthodox man to you, a true and wise philosopher, to whom God has given your language. Receive this gift, greater and more precious than all gold, silver, and precious stones, and work with him diligently to bring this business to a good conclusion, to seek God with all your heart.

Do not neglect our common salvation, and let nothing hinder you, but spur all men so that they may turn toward the path of truth. In this way by your own efforts, you will not only help bring them to the knowledge of God, but also make yourself worthy and acceptable, both in this life and in the future life, to all the souls who believe in Christ, our God, from this time until the end. Even further, you will leave behind a legacy for all generations, like that great emperor Constantine.

Challenges to Cyril’s Mission

In Moravia, Cyril’s Greek mission encountered Latin missionaries who disputed whether it was appropriate to translate sacred writings into the Slavic languages, preferring to reserve liturgical prayer only for the more ancient languages. While the Latin clergy claimed that such translations were novel, Cyril argued that it was consistent with the biblical message of evangelizing all nations. (From Life of Constantine)

Arriving at Moravia, Cyril was received with great honor, and Ratislav turned over all his students to him to be instructed. Soon Cyril had established a whole liturgical regimen, having taught them how to recite morning and evening prayer and the rituals of the sacraments. And, once the holy Scriptures began to be recited, those words of the prophet were fulfilled: “the ears of the deaf [shall be] unstopped” (Is 35:5), and “the tongue of the stammerers will speak readily and distinctly” (Is 32:4), to the praise of God and the shame of the devil.

But as divine doctrine was spreading, the devil—the wicked one, the envious one, a liar from the beginning—unable to stop this positive development, instead entered into his servants, inciting them to say, “This is offensive to God: if He had wanted people to read and write prayers in their own languages, He would have made them able to do so from the beginning. But God chose only three languages—Hebrew, Greek, and Latin—in which He may rightly be praised.”

There were many who said these things: the Latin clergy, archdeacons, priests and their disciples. And Cyril began to argue with them, just as David did with the heathen, overcoming them through the words of Scripture. He mockingly named them “three-tongued worshipers” and “Pilatians” (for Pontius Pilate wrote in these three languages above the Lord’s cross)…. For forty months he made headway in Moravia, and then set about the task of having some of his students ordained.

When he was in Venice, the Latin bishops and priests and monks came against him as a raven comes against a falcon, raising again the “three-tongued heresy.” They said, “Tell us why you have developed and taught the Slavic language, which no other man came up with before, neither the apostles, nor the pope of Rome, nor Gregory the Theologian, nor Jerome, nor Augustine. We permit only three languages for praising God: Hebrew, Greek, and Latin.”

Cyril, however, said to them: “Does God not make the rain fall upon all men equally? Does not the sun shine down upon all men equally (see Mt 5:45)? Can we not all equally breathe the air? How, then, are you not ashamed to allow only three languages, declaring that all other peoples and races should remain blind and deaf to God’s Word? Tell me, do you consider God to be so frail, that He is not able to give it to them, or so envious that He does not want to?

“We know, on the contrary, that many nations have come to develop their own written languages, and so to praise God in their own tongue. For example, the Armenians, Persians, Abkhazis, Iberians, Sogdians, Goths, Avars, Tirsians, Khazars, Arabs, Copts, Syrians, and many others. If, however, you do not wish to understand things from these, perhaps you will at least listen to Scripture. For David cries out, ‘O sing to the Lord a new song; sing to the Lord, all the earth’ (Ps 96:1) … and ‘Let everything that breathes praise the Lord!’ (Ps 150:6)….

“And in speaking to the doctors of law, Jesus says, ‘But woe to you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites! because you shut the kingdom of heaven against men; for you neither enter yourselves, nor allow those who would enter to go in’ (Mt 23:13). And again, ‘Woe to you lawyers! for you have taken away the key of knowledge; you did not enter yourselves, and you hindered those who were entering’ (Lk 11:52). Truly Paul says to the Corinthians:

[I]f you in a tongue utter speech that is not intelligible, how will any one know what is said? For you will be speaking into the air. There are doubtless many different languages in the world, and none is without meaning; but if I do not know the meaning of the language, I shall be a foreigner to the speaker and the speaker a foreigner to me. So with yourselves; since you are eager for manifestations of the Spirit, strive to excel in building up the Church. Therefore, he who speaks in a tongue should pray for the power to interpret. (1 Cor 14:9–13).

“And again, let ‘every tongue confess that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the glory of God the Father’ (Phil 2:11).”

And with these words and others he confounded them, and he departed, leaving them behind.

The Pope Endorses Cyril’s Mission

Fortunately, the bishop of Rome, undisputed head of the Latin missionaries, saw no problems with Cyril’s work, and invited him to Rome to give him his blessing. The result is a shocking display of international cooperation: a Latin bishop, in a Slavic liturgy, installing Greek missionaries as bishops of Latin dioceses in the East! (From Life of Constantine)

And the Pope, to strengthen Cyril’s case, summoned him to Rome. And when he came to Rome, Pope Hadrian himself went out to meet him with all the citizens, carrying candles, because Cyril had brought with him the relics of St. Clement, martyr and Roman pope….

Then the pope placed Cyril’s Slavic books in the Church of St. Mary, which is called Phatne, and celebrated a holy liturgy over them. Afterwards the pope had two bishops, Formosum and Gondricuni, ordain the students from among the Slavs, and after being ordained, they celebrated a liturgy in the church of St. Peter the Apostle in the Slavic language … and through the whole night they sang, glorifying God in Slavic….

Cyril with his disciples did not cease to give thanks to God on account of these things. The Romans, however, did not cease to go to him and interrogate him about all sorts of things, and seek from him a second and third explanation.

The Official Decree Authorizing Cyril’s Translations

Eleven years after Cyril’s death, the bishop of Rome solemnly endorsed the great missionary’s efforts to bring the Gospel to the Slavs by authorizing his liturgical texts. (From Pope John VIII’s Industriae tuae, AD 880)

We rightly praise the Slavonic letters invented by Cyril in which praises to God are set forth, and we order that the glories and deeds of Christ our Lord be told in that same language. Nor is it in any wise opposed to wholesome doctrine and faith to say Mass in that same Slavonic language, or to chant the holy Gospels or divine lessons from the Old and New Testaments duly translated and interpreted therein, or the other parts of the Divine Office: for He who created the three principal languages, Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, also made the others for His praise and glory.