Читать книгу Practical Statistics for Nursing and Health Care - Jim Fowler - Страница 2
Table of Contents
Оглавление1 Cover
4 Preface Background Changes in the Context of Health Care Technological Imperatives Team Working Modern Ways of Working to Make a Difference
6 1 Introduction 1.1 What Do we Mean by Statistics? 1.2 Why Is Statistics Necessary? 1.3 The Limitations of Statistics 1.4 Performing Statistical Calculations The Purpose of this Text
7 2 Health Care Investigations 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Populations, Samples and Observations 2.3 Counting Things – The Sampling Unit 2.4 Sampling Strategy 2.5 Target and Study Populations 2.6 Sample Designs 2.7 Simple Random Sampling 2.8 Systematic Sampling 2.9 Stratified Sampling 2.10 Quota Sampling 2.11 Cluster Sampling 2.12 Sampling Designs – Summary 2.13 Statistics and Parameters 2.14 Descriptive and Inferential Statistics 2.15 Parametric and Non‐Parametric Statistics
8 3 Processing Data 3.1 Scales of Measurement 3.2 The Nominal Scale 3.3 The Ordinal Scale 3.4 The Interval Scale 3.5 The Ratio Scale 3.6 Conversion of Interval Observations to an Ordinal Scale 3.7 Derived Variables 3.8 Logarithms 3.9 The Precision of Observations 3.10 How Precise Should We Be? 3.11 The Frequency Table 3.12 Aggregating Frequency Classes 3.13 Frequency Distribution of Count Observations 3.14 Bivariate Data
9 4 Presenting Data 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Dot Plot or Line Plot 4.3 Bar Graph 4.4 Histogram 4.5 Frequency Polygon and Frequency Curve 4.6 Centiles and Growth Charts 4.7 Scattergram 4.8 Circle or Pie Graph
10 5 Clinical Trials 5.1 Introduction 5.2 The Nature of Clinical Trials 5.3 Clinical Trial Designs 5.4 Psychological Effects and Blind Trials 5.5 Historical Controls 5.6 Ethical Issues 5.7 Case Study: Leicestershire Electroconvulsive Therapy Study 5.8 Summary
11 6 Introduction to Epidemiology 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Measuring Disease 6.3 Study Designs – Cohort Studies 6.4 Study Designs – Case‐Control Studies 6.5 Cohort or Case‐Control Study? 6.6 Choice of Comparison Group 6.7 Confounding 6.8 Summary
12 7 Measuring the Average 7.1 What Is an Average? 7.2 The Mean 7.3 Calculating the Mean of Grouped Data 7.4 The Median – A Resistant Statistic 7.5 The Median of a Frequency Distribution 7.6 The Mode 7.7 Relationship between Mean, Median and Mode
13 8 Measuring Variability 8.1 Variability 8.2 The Range 8.3 The Standard Deviation 8.4 Calculating the Standard Deviation 8.5 Calculating the Standard Deviation from Grouped Data 8.6 Variance 8.7 An Alternative Formula for Calculating the Variance and Standard Deviation 8.8 Degrees of Freedom 8.9 The Coefficient of Variation
14 9 Probability and the Normal Curve 9.1 The Meaning of Probability 9.2 Compound Probabilities 9.3 Critical Probability 9.4 Probability Distribution 9.5 The Normal Curve 9.6 Some Properties of the Normal Curve 9.7 Standardizing the Normal Curve 9.8 Two‐Tailed or One‐Tailed? 9.9 Small Samples: The t‐Distribution 9.10 Are our Data Normally Distributed? 9.11 Dealing with ‘Non‐normal’ Data
15 10 How Good Are our Estimates? 10.1 Sampling Error 10.2 The Distribution of a Sample Mean 10.3 The Confidence Interval of a Mean of a Large Sample 10.4 The Confidence Interval of a Mean of a Small Sample 10.5 The Difference between the Means of Two Large Samples 10.6 The Difference between the Means of Two Small Samples 10.7 Estimating a Proportion 10.8 The Finite Population Correction
16 11 The Basis of Statistical Testing 11.1 Introduction 11.2 The Experimental Hypothesis 11.3 The Statistical Hypothesis 11.4 Test Statistics 11.5 One‐Tailed and Two‐Tailed Tests 11.6 Hypothesis Testing and the Normal Curve 11.7 Type 1 and Type 2 Errors 11.8 Parametric and Non‐parametric Statistics: Some Further Observations 11.9 The Power of a Test
17 12 Analysing Frequencies 12.1 The Chi‐Square Test 12.2 Calculating the Test Statistic 12.3 A Practical Example of a Test for Homogeneous Frequencies 12.4 One Degree of Freedom – Yates' Correction 12.5 Goodness of Fit Tests 12.6 The Contingency Table – Tests for Association 12.7 The ‘Rows by Columns’ (r × c) Contingency Table 12.8 Larger Contingency Tables 12.9 Advice on Analysing Frequencies
18 13 Measuring Correlations 13.1 The Meaning of Correlation 13.2 Investigating Correlation 13.3 The Strength and Significance of a Correlation 13.4 The Product Moment Correlation Coefficient 13.5 The Coefficient of Determination r2 13.6 The Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient rs 13.7 Advice on Measuring Correlations
19 14 Regression Analysis 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Gradients and Triangles 14.3 Dependent and Independent Variables 14.4 A Perfect Rectilinear Relationship 14.5 The Line of Least Squares 14.6 Simple Linear Regression 14.7 Fitting the Regression Line to the Scattergram 14.8 Regression for Estimation 14.9 The Coefficient of Determination in Regression 14.10 Dealing with Curved Relationships 14.11 How Can We ‘Straighten Up’ Curved Relationships? 14.12 Advice on Using Regression Analysis
20 15 Comparing Averages 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Matched and Unmatched Observations 15.3 The Mann–Whitney U‐Test for Unmatched Samples 15.4 Advice on Using the Mann–Whitney U‐Test 15.5 More than Two Samples – The Kruskal–Wallis Test 15.6 Advice on Using the Kruskal–Wallis Test 15.7 The Wilcoxon Test for Matched Pairs 15.8 Advice on Using the Wilcoxon Test for Matched Pairs 15.9 Comparing Means – Parametric Tests 15.10 The z‐Test for Comparing the Means of Two Large Samples 15.11 The t‐Test for Comparing the Means of Two Small Samples 15.12 The t‐Test for Matched Pairs 15.13 Advice on Comparing Means
21 16 Analysis of Variance – ANOVA 16.1 Why Do We Need ANOVA? 16.2 How ANOVA Works 16.3 Procedure for Computing ANOVA 16.4 The Tukey Test 16.5 Further Applications of ANOVA 16.6 Advice on Using ANOVA
22 Appendix A: Table of Random Numbers
24 Appendix C: χ2‐Distribution
25 Appendix D: Critical Values of Spearman's Rank Correlation Coefficient
26 Appendix E: Critical Values of the Product Moment Correlation Coefficient
27 Appendix F: Mann–Whitney U ‐test Values (Two‐Tailed Test) P = 0.05
28 Appendix G: Critical Values of T in the Wilcoxon Test for Matched Pairs
32 Appendix K: Leicestershire ECT Study Data: Subgroup with Depressive Illness
33 Appendix L: How Large Should Our Samples Be? L.1 Introduction L.2 Proportions L.3 Calculating Sample Size for a Quantitative Measure
34 Bibliography
35 Index
