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Joanne Belknap
The Invisible Woman
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The Invisible Woman
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The Invisible Woman
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• Preface and Acknowledgments •
• New to This Edition •
• About the Author •
Part I Introduction
1 Gendering Criminology Through an Intersectional Lens
Diversity Among Women and Girls
What Is Feminism?
Women and Girls’ Invisibility
Women and Girls as Offenders
Women and Girls as Victims
Women as Professionals in the Criminal Legal System
Blurring of Boundaries of Women’s Experiences in Crime
Sex Versus Gender
What Are Feminist Methods?
The Effect of Societal Images on Women Regarding Crime
Summary
Part II Women and Girls’ Offending
2 Theories Part I: Positivist, Evolutionary, Strain, Differential Association, Social Control, and Women’s Emancipation Theories
The Original and Positivist Studies
Cesare Lombroso (1835–1909)
W. I. Thomas (1863–1947), Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), and Otto Pollak (1908–1998)
The Legacies of the Positivist Theorists From the 1960s and 1970s
Biosocial and Evolutionary (Psychological) Theories (BSETs)
BSET as an Explanation of Sexual Abuse
BSET as an Explanation of Intimate Partner Abuse (IPA)
Feminist and Other Responses to the Application of BSET to Gender-Based Abuses
Strain Theories Traditional Strain Theory (TST)
Opportunity Theory (OT)
General Strain Theory (GST)
Differential Association Theory (DAT) and Social Learning Theory (SLT) Differential Association Theory (DAT)
Social Learning Theory (SLT)
Social Control Theories (SCTs)
Social Bond Theory (SBT): Conventional Ties
A General Theory of Crime (GTC): Self-Control
Power-Control Theory (PCT): Gendered Practices of Parents and Parenting
Women’s Liberation/Emancipation Hypothesis (WLEH)
Summary
3 Theories Part II: Critical, Labeling, Cycle of Violence, Life Course, Pathways, and Masculinity Theories
Agency and Resiliency
Critical Theories Critical Criminology Theory (CCT)
Critical Race Theory (CRT)
Critical Race Feminist Theory (CRFT)
Labeling Theory (LT)
Advancing LT
Gender Applications of LT
Developmental and Adverse Life Events Theories
Cycle of Violence Theory (CVT)
Life Course Theory (LCT)
The Focus on Boys and Young Men
Expanding LCT to Girls and Women, Gender Comparisons, and Intimate Relationship Effects
Advancing LCT
Pathways Theory (PT)
Studies Consistent With PT That Preceded the Naming of PT
Patterns and Advancement of PT
Masculinity Theory (MT)
Summary
4 Accounting for Gender–Crime Patterns
Measuring Crime
2009–2018 Arrest Rates From the UCR
Documenting and Assessing Gender Patterns in Offending Over Time Four Options to Describe Gender–Crime Patterns Over Time
Three Steps to Assess, Interpret, and Explain Gender Convergence Findings Defining the Three Steps.
Research Assessing the Three Steps.
The Most Recent UCR Data and the Gender–Crime Gap 2009–2018.
The Roles of Gender Regarding Co-Offenders, Age, Race, Class, Sexuality, and Mental Illness
Co-Offending
Age and Juvenile Delinquency
Intersections With Race/Ethnicity and Class
Sexuality and Gender Identity
Serious Mental Illness (SMI)
Summary
Descriptions of Images and Figures
5 The Context of Women and Girls’ Offending for Specific Crimes
Drugs and Alcohol: Substance Use, Abuse, and Selling (SUAS)
Acquiring and Reasons for Trying and Using Substances
Type of Substance Abused
Alcohol.
Marijuana/Cannabis.
Methamphetamine.
Nonmedical Prescription Drugs (NMPDs).
Crack.
Selling/Dealing Drugs
The Links Between SUAS and Other Crimes
Theft, Burglary, and Robbery
Theft
Burglary
Robbery
White-Collar Crimes (WCCs)
Sex Work and Prostitution
Aggression and Assault
Child Abductions/Kidnappings
Homicides
Intimate Partner Homicides (IPHs)
Filicides
Girls and Women in Gangs
A Brief History of Feminist Gang Scholarship
Gangs and Criminal Behavior
Why Girls Join Gangs
How Boys in Gangs Treat Girls in Gangs
Bargaining With Patriarchy
Summary
Descriptions of Images and Figures
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