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Joe Mayhew. Large Animal Neurology
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
Large Animal Neurology
Preface to third edition
About the companion website
Part I Evaluation of Large Animal Neurologic Patients
1 Practical neuroanatomy
Disease
Basic descriptive terminology
Functional neuroanatomy
References
2 Neurologic evaluation
Disease
Overview
Signalment
History
Procedure for the neurologic examination
Head
Body. Neck and thoracic limbs
Trunk and pelvic limbs
Rectum, bladder, anus, and tail
Gait and posture
Interpretation of findings. Interpretation of signs of brain and cranial nerve disease
Behavior
Mental status
Head posture and movement
Cranial nerves
Olfactory nerve—CN I
Optic nerve—CN II
Oculomotor nerve—CN III (parasympathetic)
Sympathetic innervation to the eyes and head
Sympathetic innervation to the trunk
Oculomotor nerve—CN III; trochlear nerve—CN IV; abducens nerve—CN VI
Trigeminal nerve—CN V
Facial nerve—CN VII
Vestibulocochlear nerve—CN VIII
Glossopharyngeal nerve—CN IX; vagus nerve—CN X; accessory nerve—CN XI
Accessory nerve—CN XI
Hypoglossal nerve—CN XII
Interpretation of signs of spinal cord disease. Gait and postural abnormalities
Interpretation of results of tail pull test
Localizing findings in spinal cord disease. Neck and forelimbs
Trunk and hindlimbs
Recumbent patient
Rectum, bladder, anus, perineum, and tail
Interpretation of signs of peripheral nerve disease
Clinico‐pathologic categories of peripheral nerve damage
Final interpretation: where and what is the lesion?
Initial plan
References
3 Ancillary diagnostic aids
Disease
Routine clinicopathological tests
Genetic markers
Selection of neuromuscular genetic tests that are available
Selection of Large Animal Veterinary Genetic Testing Laboratories (URLs logged March 2022)
Cerebrospinal fluid analysis
Electrodiagnostic testing
Neuroimaging. Plain and contrast radiography
Computed tomography
Magnetic resonance imaging
Thermography
Scintigraphy
Ultrasonography
Spinal endoscopy
Brain biopsy
References
4 Pathologic responses of the nervous system
Disease
Gross changes visible in nervous tissues. Finding the lesion
Gross artifacts
Gross lesions
Blocking tissues
General histologic reactions of cells of the nervous system
Neurons
Astrocytes
Oligodendrocytes
Microglia
Meningeal, choroidal, and ependymal cells
Schwann cells
Neuropathologic responses in the various mechanisms of disease
Malformations
Infectious, inflammatory, and immune disorders
Viruses
Bacteria
Fungi
Protozoa and amoeba
Helminth and arthropod parasites
Immune mechanisms
Prion agents
Physical and chemical disorders
Toxic diseases
Nutritional diseases
Metabolic diseases
Vascular lesions
Degenerative processes
Neoplasms and other tumors
Idiopathic disorders
References
Part II Clinical Problems in Large Animal Neurology
5 Disorders of behavior
References
6 Seizures and epilepsy
References
7 Sleep and acute collapse disorders
References
8 Coma and other altered states of consciousness
References
9 Blindness
References
10 Miosis, mydriasis, anisocoria, and Horner syndrome
CASE STUDY
References
11 Strabismus
References
12 Dropped mandible and masticatory muscle atrophy
References
13 Decreased and Increased facial sensation
References
14 Facial paralysis and facial spasm
References
15 Pharyngeal dysphagia
References
16 Dilated esophagus
References
17 Laryngeal paresis and paralysis: roaring
References
18 Tongue Paralysis
References
19 Head tilt, circling, nystagmus, and other signs of vestibular dysfunction
References
20 Deafness
References
21 Disorders of posture and movement
Pure postural deformities
Opisthotonus and tetanus
Tetany and tremor
Other localized muscle spasms, movement disorders, and gait abnormalities
References
22 Incoordination of the head, neck, trunk and limbs: cerebellar diseases
References
23 Tetraparesis, paraparesis, and ataxia of the limbs: spinal cord diseases
References
24 Diffuse weakness
References
25 Paresis and paralysis of one limb: monoparesis
References
26 Bilateral brachial paresis to paralysis
Reference
27 Urinary bladder distention, dilated rectum and anus, and atonic tail: cauda equina syndrome
References
28 Pruritus, self‐mutilation, headshaking, complex regional pain syndrome, and miscellaneous distressing disorders
References
29 Autonomic nervous system dysfunction
References
30 Vertebral and paravertebral problems: stiff neck and sore back
References
Part III Mechanisms and Specific Diseases
31 Congenital, familial, and genetic disorders
Diseaseɸ
Citrullinemia
Maple syrup urine disease
Status spongiosus of white matter in newborn Gelbvieh‐cross calves
Cerebellar hypoplasia
Lissencephaly with cerebellar hypoplasia in Churra sheep
Cerebellar abiotrophy
Bovine familial convulsions and ataxia
Ovine cerebellar cortical degeneration (daft lamb disease)
Dandy–Walker syndrome
Arnold–Chiari malformation
Miscellaneous cerebellar degenerative disorders
Congenital myoclonia (neuraxial edema) of Hereford calves
Congenital myoclonus in Peruvian Paso foals and Merino lambs
Lavender foal syndrome, tetany syndrome in Arabian foals, and coat color dilution lethal
Spinal dysmyelination in crossbred American Brown Swiss and in Braunvieh calves
Congenital tremor syndrome
Encephalopathy in neonatal Swaledale lambs
Miscellaneous forebrain malformations
Familial epilepsy in cattle
Benign epilepsy of foals
Narcolepsy with cataplexy
Narcolepsy without cataplexy
Sporadic idiopathic (essential, primary) hypersomnia in adult patients
Hydrocephalus
Hydranencephaly
Limousin cattle encephalopathy
Simmental cattle encephalomyelopathy
Encephalomyelopathy of Angus calves
Romney sheep spongiform leukoencephalomyelopathy
Lysosomal storage diseases
Portosystemic vascular anomalies
Neuroaxonal dystrophy
Familial ataxia in Merino sheep
Progressive ataxia of Charolais cattle
Bovine progressive degenerative myeloencephalopathy (Weaver syndrome)
Degenerative axonopathy in Tyrolean gray calves (Demetz syndrome)
Central and peripheral axonopathy in Rouge‐des‐pres (Maine Anjou) calves
Progressive myelopathy in cattle
Spinal muscular atrophy
Motor neuron disease in Romney lambs
Shaker calf syndrome
Neurofibrillary degeneration
Myofibrillar hypoplasia in piglets (congenital adductor weakness)
Progressive paresis in Angora goats
Occipitoatlantoaxial malformations
Cervicothoracic subluxation in sheep
Bovine complex vertebral malformation
Congenital chondrodystrophy in beef cattle
Myelodysplasia and congenital vertebral malformations
Optic nerve hypoplasia
Congenital stationary night blindness—nyctalopia
Congenital sensorineural deafness
Bilateral convergent strabismus and exophthalmos
Divergent strabismus
Juvenile pendular nystagmus
Congenital flaccid mandible in newborn calves and lambs
Spastic syndrome of adult cattle
Spastic paresis of calves
Familial neuropathy of Gelbvieh cattle
Congenital hypomyelination sensory neuropathy
Hindlimb spasticity in piglets
Arthrogryposis (Gr: arthron = joint; gryposis = curvature)
The myotonias
Myotonia congenita
Myotonic dystrophy and myotonic myopathy
Nonmyotonic congenital and familial muscular dystrophies and myopathies
Hyperkalemic periodic paralysis in horses
Congenital myasthenic syndromes
Porcine stress syndrome and malignant hyperthermia
Equine glycogen storage metabolic myopathies
Mitochondrial myopathy
Equine familial isolated hypoparathyroidism
References
Note
32 Infectious, inflammatory, and immune diseases
Disease
Bacterial. Listeriosis
Histophilus somni thromboembolic meningoencephalitis
Bacterial meningitis and ventriculitis in young ungulates
Brain abscess
Basilar empyema
Suppurative meningitis in adult ungulates
Retrobulbar and periorbital cellulitis and empyema
Guttural pouch infection
Bacterial glossitis
Otitis media and otitis interna
Vertebral suppurative arthritis, osteomyelitis and discospondylitis
Ascending bacterial empyema and myelitis associated with tail docking and tail biting
Septic aortic thrombosis
Septic polymyositis. Clostridial myositis
Streptococcal myositis
Other bacterial causes of myositis
Melioidosis
Lyme neuroborreliosis
Viral. Equine arboviruses
Alphaviruses
West Nile virus
Other encephalitic viruses of equids
Ovine encephalomyelitis virus
Small ruminant lentiviruses
Borna disease virus
Malignant catarrhal fever
Rabies
Picornaviral encephalitis of pigs
Hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus
Porcine rubulavirus
Pseudorabies
Equine infectious anemia virus
Viral‐induced congenital malformations
Border disease
Bovine herpesvirus meningoencephalitis
Equine Herpesvirus‐1 myeloencephalopathy
Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies
Other agents. Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis
Trypanosomiasis
Additional Protozoal meningoencephalomyelitides in ruminants
Mycotic and amoebic encephalomyelitides
Verminous encephalitis and myelitis
Nematodes, superfamily Strongyloidea
Nematodes: superfamily Metastrongyloidea
Nematodes: superfamily Filaroidea
Nematodes: superfamily Panagrolaimoidea
Nematodes: superfamily Habronematoidea
Cestodes: family Taeniidae
Flies: family Oestridae
Sporadic bovine encephalomyelitis
Chlamydia pecorum sporadic bovine encephalomyelitis
Protozoal polymyositis
Inflammatory and immune mechanisms. Optic neuritis
Granulomatous facial and vestibulocochlear neuropathy in cattle
Immune‐mediated myositis
Infarctive purpura hemorrhagica
Polyneuritis equi
Supplementary inflammatory neurologic disorders
Granulomatous meningoencephalitis
Sclerosing panencephalitis
Idiopathic eosinophilic meningoencephalitis
Granulomas
Acquired myasthenia gravis
References
33 Physical, chemical, and thermal causes
Disease
Physical injury. Traumatic brain injury
Carotid air embolism
Traumatic optic neuropathy
Squeeze‐chute accidents in cattle
Temporomandibular luxation in the horse
Temporohyoid osteoarthropathy of horses
Spinal cord and vertebral trauma
Acquired scoliosis, lordosis, kyphosis, and torticollis
Intervertebral disc trauma, degeneration, and prolapse
Sacral, sacrocaudal, and caudal vertebral fracture and luxation
Avulsion of the cauda equina
Injury to peripheral nerves
Suprascapular nerve
Axillary nerve
Radial nerve
Brachial plexus
Musculocutaneous nerve
Median and ulnar nerves
Femoral nerve
Obturator nerve
Sciatic nerve
Tibial nerve
Peroneal nerve
Cranial gluteal nerve
Facial nerve
Cervicothoracic and thoracolumbar compressive radiculopathy
Postanesthetic myoneuropathy—see Chapter 38. Postpartum paralysis; ‘Downer cow syndrome’
Neonatal acquired paralysis syndromes
Fibrotic myopathy
Chemical causes. Intracarotid injection
Paravertebral injection reactions
Caudal epidural ethanol injections
Thermal causes. Dehorning brain injury
Heat stress and shock
Lightning strike and electrocution
Sunburn
References
34 Toxic diseases
Disease
Chemical and organic toxins. Lead poisoning
Selenium toxicity
Metallic myelopathy—direct heavy metal toxicity
Sodium salt poisoning and water intoxication
Ammonated forage toxicity
Urea (non‐protein nitrogen) intoxication
Cyanide poisoning
Organochlorine compounds
Organophosphate and carbamate compounds
Strychnine
Metaldehyde
Fluoroacetate (compound 1080)
Arsanilic acid and 3‐nitro‐4‐hydroxyphenylarsonic acid (3‐nitro): Arsenic toxicoses
Aminoglycoside toxicity
Chronic toxicity by organomercury compounds
Ionophore toxicity—monensin, salinomycin, and lasolocid
Ivermectin and moxidectin
Methyl bromide
Procaine penicillin reaction
Miscellaneous known and suspected drugs and toxins
Plant and plant‐related toxins. Locoweed and Darling pea—swainsonine intoxication
Ataxia associated with sorghum spp. grasses
Nigropallidal encephalomalacia
Kochia scoparia (Mexican fireweed)
Stypandra and Helichrysum spp. poisoning
Coffee senna (Cassia spp.) plant neuromuscular toxicoses
Eggplant
Bracken fern and horsetail‐induced thiamine deficiency
Pasture‐associated stringhalt
Toxic plants and mycotoxins producing ataxia, weakness, and tremors
Weakness and ataxia syndromes
Tremor syndromes
Cerebellar disorders
Tutu: Coriaria spp. poisoning
Plant‐induced arthrogryposis
Atypical myopathy (seasonal pasture myopathy) in horses
Ataxia associated with stinging nettle
Miscellaneous toxic plants
Bacterial toxins. Botulism and the shaker foal syndrome
Tetanus due to Clostridium tetani neurotoxin
Enterotoxemic encephalopathy: Focal symmetrical encephalomalacia in ruminants and edema disease of pigs
Equine mycotoxic encephalomalacia associated with moldy corn
Miscellaneous biotoxicities. Tick paralysis
Seizures and muscle spasms associated with ticks and mites
Snake bite paralysis
References
35 Nutritional diseases
Disease
Vitamin A deficiency
Mulberry heart disease of pigs—vitamin E deficiency
Polioencephalomalacia and cerebrocotical necrosis in ruminants
Pantothenic acid deficiency
Masseter myopathy in horses (myopathy of muscles of mastication and deglutition)
Nicotinic acid deficiency
Equine motor neuron disease
Equine degenerative myeloencephalopathy (equine neuroaxonal dystrophy)
Enzootic ataxia—swayback—copper deficiency
Nutritional myodegeneration—white muscle disease—myodegeneration and steatitis
References
36 Metabolic diseases
Disease
Hepatic encephalopathy
Hyperammonemia
Uremic encephalopathy
Hypocalcemia (milk fever) and hypomagnesemia (grass staggers)
Ketosis (with hypoglycemia) in ruminants
Hypoglycemia
Hyponatremia
Hypernatremia
Hypokalemic syndrome in cattle
Anesthetic‐related hypoxia and anoxia
Cardiocirculatory collapse—shock
References
37 Neoplasms and other tumors
Disease Site
Brain
Neurocranium and cranial nerves
Spinal cord
Peripheral nerves
Diagnostic and therapeutic aspects
References
38 Multifactorial and idiopathic disorders
Disease
Equine neonatal encephalopathy
Nervous form of coccidiosis
Brainstem neuronal chromatolysis in cattle (bovine tauopathy)
Postanesthetic cerebral necrosis in horses
Sleep attacks—adult
Cervical vertebral malformation–malarticulation of horses
Cervical compressive myelopathy in young Texel and Beltex sheep
Congenital spinal stenosis of thoracolumbar vertebrae in beef calves
Selective poliomyelomalacia of sheep, goats, and calves
Postanesthetic myelopathy
Vascular malformations
Discospondylosis
Neurofibrillary degeneration
Embolic myelopathy
Miscellaneous degenerative myelopathies
Equine grass sickness (equine dysautonomia)
Recurrent laryngeal neuropathy
Aortic–iliac–femoral thrombosis and ischemic neuromyopathy
Idiopathic neuropathy with knuckling in horses
Acquired equine polyneuropathy of Nordic horses
Stiff‐horse syndrome
Kangaroo gait in sheep
Flying scapulae in ruminants
Dropped hock syndrome in cattle
Exertional rhabdomyolysis and capture myopathy
Postanesthetic limb myoneuropathy
References
Index
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