Large Animal Neurology

Large Animal Neurology
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A comprehensive and authoritative guide to neurologic disease in large domestic animals, world-wide. The newly revised Third Edition of Large Animal Neurology delivers a practical and complete reference for veterinarians, veterinary trainees and scientists dealing with large animal neurology. The book is vividly illustrated in full colour and contains many clinical photographs and detailed line drawings to highlight the concepts discussed within. Organised into three parts, Large Animal Neurology offers practitioners and students straightforward guides on how to perform neurologic examinations for domestic large animal species, including neonates. It also discusses the presenting clinical syndromes caused by common nervous system diseases, as well as giving details of the specific neurologic diseases of large domestic animals. The book includes: A thorough introduction to the evaluation of large animal neurologic patients, including discussions of neuroanatomy, neurologic evaluation, ancillary diagnostic aids, and the important pathologic responses of the nervous system Comprehensive exploration of 26 presenting clinical problems, including behaviour disorders, seizures, epilepsy, sleep disorders, blindness, strabismus, monoplegia, wobblers, tetraplegia, pruritus and cauda equina syndrome Detailed coverage of the specific diseases, including those of genetic, infectious, nutritional, toxic and metabolic cause, and the many diseases with multifactorial and with unknown cause Perfect for all equine and farm animal veterinarians, veterinary neurologists, as well as trainees in the field, Large Animal Neurology, Third Edition is also an ideal resource for undergraduate veterinary students, animal pathologists, and neuroscience researchers.

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Joe Mayhew. Large Animal Neurology

Table of Contents

List of Tables

List of Illustrations

Guide

Pages

Large Animal Neurology

Preface to third edition

About the companion website

Part I Evaluation of Large Animal Neurologic Patients

1 Practical neuroanatomy

Disease

Basic descriptive terminology

Functional neuroanatomy

References

2 Neurologic evaluation

Disease

Overview

Signalment

History

Procedure for the neurologic examination

Head

Body. Neck and thoracic limbs

Trunk and pelvic limbs

Rectum, bladder, anus, and tail

Gait and posture

Interpretation of findings. Interpretation of signs of brain and cranial nerve disease

Behavior

Mental status

Head posture and movement

Cranial nerves

Olfactory nerve—CN I

Optic nerve—CN II

Oculomotor nerve—CN III (parasympathetic)

Sympathetic innervation to the eyes and head

Sympathetic innervation to the trunk

Oculomotor nerve—CN III; trochlear nerve—CN IV; abducens nerve—CN VI

Trigeminal nerve—CN V

Facial nerve—CN VII

Vestibulocochlear nerve—CN VIII

Glossopharyngeal nerve—CN IX; vagus nerve—CN X; accessory nerve—CN XI

Accessory nerve—CN XI

Hypoglossal nerve—CN XII

Interpretation of signs of spinal cord disease. Gait and postural abnormalities

Interpretation of results of tail pull test

Localizing findings in spinal cord disease. Neck and forelimbs

Trunk and hindlimbs

Recumbent patient

Rectum, bladder, anus, perineum, and tail

Interpretation of signs of peripheral nerve disease

Clinico‐pathologic categories of peripheral nerve damage

Final interpretation: where and what is the lesion?

Initial plan

References

3 Ancillary diagnostic aids

Disease

Routine clinicopathological tests

Genetic markers

Selection of neuromuscular genetic tests that are available

Selection of Large Animal Veterinary Genetic Testing Laboratories (URLs logged March 2022)

Cerebrospinal fluid analysis

Electrodiagnostic testing

Neuroimaging. Plain and contrast radiography

Computed tomography

Magnetic resonance imaging

Thermography

Scintigraphy

Ultrasonography

Spinal endoscopy

Brain biopsy

References

4 Pathologic responses of the nervous system

Disease

Gross changes visible in nervous tissues. Finding the lesion

Gross artifacts

Gross lesions

Blocking tissues

General histologic reactions of cells of the nervous system

Neurons

Astrocytes

Oligodendrocytes

Microglia

Meningeal, choroidal, and ependymal cells

Schwann cells

Neuropathologic responses in the various mechanisms of disease

Malformations

Infectious, inflammatory, and immune disorders

Viruses

Bacteria

Fungi

Protozoa and amoeba

Helminth and arthropod parasites

Immune mechanisms

Prion agents

Physical and chemical disorders

Toxic diseases

Nutritional diseases

Metabolic diseases

Vascular lesions

Degenerative processes

Neoplasms and other tumors

Idiopathic disorders

References

Part II Clinical Problems in Large Animal Neurology

5 Disorders of behavior

References

6 Seizures and epilepsy

References

7 Sleep and acute collapse disorders

References

8 Coma and other altered states of consciousness

References

9 Blindness

References

10 Miosis, mydriasis, anisocoria, and Horner syndrome

CASE STUDY

References

11 Strabismus

References

12 Dropped mandible and masticatory muscle atrophy

References

13 Decreased and Increased facial sensation

References

14 Facial paralysis and facial spasm

References

15 Pharyngeal dysphagia

References

16 Dilated esophagus

References

17 Laryngeal paresis and paralysis: roaring

References

18 Tongue Paralysis

References

19 Head tilt, circling, nystagmus, and other signs of vestibular dysfunction

References

20 Deafness

References

21 Disorders of posture and movement

Pure postural deformities

Opisthotonus and tetanus

Tetany and tremor

Other localized muscle spasms, movement disorders, and gait abnormalities

References

22 Incoordination of the head, neck, trunk and limbs: cerebellar diseases

References

23 Tetraparesis, paraparesis, and ataxia of the limbs: spinal cord diseases

References

24 Diffuse weakness

References

25 Paresis and paralysis of one limb: monoparesis

References

26 Bilateral brachial paresis to paralysis

Reference

27 Urinary bladder distention, dilated rectum and anus, and atonic tail: cauda equina syndrome

References

28 Pruritus, self‐mutilation, headshaking, complex regional pain syndrome, and miscellaneous distressing disorders

References

29 Autonomic nervous system dysfunction

References

30 Vertebral and paravertebral problems: stiff neck and sore back

References

Part III Mechanisms and Specific Diseases

31 Congenital, familial, and genetic disorders

Diseaseɸ

Citrullinemia

Maple syrup urine disease

Status spongiosus of white matter in newborn Gelbvieh‐cross calves

Cerebellar hypoplasia

Lissencephaly with cerebellar hypoplasia in Churra sheep

Cerebellar abiotrophy

Bovine familial convulsions and ataxia

Ovine cerebellar cortical degeneration (daft lamb disease)

Dandy–Walker syndrome

Arnold–Chiari malformation

Miscellaneous cerebellar degenerative disorders

Congenital myoclonia (neuraxial edema) of Hereford calves

Congenital myoclonus in Peruvian Paso foals and Merino lambs

Lavender foal syndrome, tetany syndrome in Arabian foals, and coat color dilution lethal

Spinal dysmyelination in crossbred American Brown Swiss and in Braunvieh calves

Congenital tremor syndrome

Encephalopathy in neonatal Swaledale lambs

Miscellaneous forebrain malformations

Familial epilepsy in cattle

Benign epilepsy of foals

Narcolepsy with cataplexy

Narcolepsy without cataplexy

Sporadic idiopathic (essential, primary) hypersomnia in adult patients

Hydrocephalus

Hydranencephaly

Limousin cattle encephalopathy

Simmental cattle encephalomyelopathy

Encephalomyelopathy of Angus calves

Romney sheep spongiform leukoencephalomyelopathy

Lysosomal storage diseases

Portosystemic vascular anomalies

Neuroaxonal dystrophy

Familial ataxia in Merino sheep

Progressive ataxia of Charolais cattle

Bovine progressive degenerative myeloencephalopathy (Weaver syndrome)

Degenerative axonopathy in Tyrolean gray calves (Demetz syndrome)

Central and peripheral axonopathy in Rouge‐des‐pres (Maine Anjou) calves

Progressive myelopathy in cattle

Spinal muscular atrophy

Motor neuron disease in Romney lambs

Shaker calf syndrome

Neurofibrillary degeneration

Myofibrillar hypoplasia in piglets (congenital adductor weakness)

Progressive paresis in Angora goats

Occipitoatlantoaxial malformations

Cervicothoracic subluxation in sheep

Bovine complex vertebral malformation

Congenital chondrodystrophy in beef cattle

Myelodysplasia and congenital vertebral malformations

Optic nerve hypoplasia

Congenital stationary night blindness—nyctalopia

Congenital sensorineural deafness

Bilateral convergent strabismus and exophthalmos

Divergent strabismus

Juvenile pendular nystagmus

Congenital flaccid mandible in newborn calves and lambs

Spastic syndrome of adult cattle

Spastic paresis of calves

Familial neuropathy of Gelbvieh cattle

Congenital hypomyelination sensory neuropathy

Hindlimb spasticity in piglets

Arthrogryposis (Gr: arthron = joint; gryposis = curvature)

The myotonias

Myotonia congenita

Myotonic dystrophy and myotonic myopathy

Nonmyotonic congenital and familial muscular dystrophies and myopathies

Hyperkalemic periodic paralysis in horses

Congenital myasthenic syndromes

Porcine stress syndrome and malignant hyperthermia

Equine glycogen storage metabolic myopathies

Mitochondrial myopathy

Equine familial isolated hypoparathyroidism

References

Note

32 Infectious, inflammatory, and immune diseases

Disease

Bacterial. Listeriosis

Histophilus somni thromboembolic meningoencephalitis

Bacterial meningitis and ventriculitis in young ungulates

Brain abscess

Basilar empyema

Suppurative meningitis in adult ungulates

Retrobulbar and periorbital cellulitis and empyema

Guttural pouch infection

Bacterial glossitis

Otitis media and otitis interna

Vertebral suppurative arthritis, osteomyelitis and discospondylitis

Ascending bacterial empyema and myelitis associated with tail docking and tail biting

Septic aortic thrombosis

Septic polymyositis. Clostridial myositis

Streptococcal myositis

Other bacterial causes of myositis

Melioidosis

Lyme neuroborreliosis

Viral. Equine arboviruses

Alphaviruses

West Nile virus

Other encephalitic viruses of equids

Ovine encephalomyelitis virus

Small ruminant lentiviruses

Borna disease virus

Malignant catarrhal fever

Rabies

Picornaviral encephalitis of pigs

Hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus

Porcine rubulavirus

Pseudorabies

Equine infectious anemia virus

Viral‐induced congenital malformations

Border disease

Bovine herpesvirus meningoencephalitis

Equine Herpesvirus‐1 myeloencephalopathy

Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies

Other agents. Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis

Trypanosomiasis

Additional Protozoal meningoencephalomyelitides in ruminants

Mycotic and amoebic encephalomyelitides

Verminous encephalitis and myelitis

Nematodes, superfamily Strongyloidea

Nematodes: superfamily Metastrongyloidea

Nematodes: superfamily Filaroidea

Nematodes: superfamily Panagrolaimoidea

Nematodes: superfamily Habronematoidea

Cestodes: family Taeniidae

Flies: family Oestridae

Sporadic bovine encephalomyelitis

Chlamydia pecorum sporadic bovine encephalomyelitis

Protozoal polymyositis

Inflammatory and immune mechanisms. Optic neuritis

Granulomatous facial and vestibulocochlear neuropathy in cattle

Immune‐mediated myositis

Infarctive purpura hemorrhagica

Polyneuritis equi

Supplementary inflammatory neurologic disorders

Granulomatous meningoencephalitis

Sclerosing panencephalitis

Idiopathic eosinophilic meningoencephalitis

Granulomas

Acquired myasthenia gravis

References

33 Physical, chemical, and thermal causes

Disease

Physical injury. Traumatic brain injury

Carotid air embolism

Traumatic optic neuropathy

Squeeze‐chute accidents in cattle

Temporomandibular luxation in the horse

Temporohyoid osteoarthropathy of horses

Spinal cord and vertebral trauma

Acquired scoliosis, lordosis, kyphosis, and torticollis

Intervertebral disc trauma, degeneration, and prolapse

Sacral, sacrocaudal, and caudal vertebral fracture and luxation

Avulsion of the cauda equina

Injury to peripheral nerves

Suprascapular nerve

Axillary nerve

Radial nerve

Brachial plexus

Musculocutaneous nerve

Median and ulnar nerves

Femoral nerve

Obturator nerve

Sciatic nerve

Tibial nerve

Peroneal nerve

Cranial gluteal nerve

Facial nerve

Cervicothoracic and thoracolumbar compressive radiculopathy

Postanesthetic myoneuropathy—see Chapter 38. Postpartum paralysis; ‘Downer cow syndrome’

Neonatal acquired paralysis syndromes

Fibrotic myopathy

Chemical causes. Intracarotid injection

Paravertebral injection reactions

Caudal epidural ethanol injections

Thermal causes. Dehorning brain injury

Heat stress and shock

Lightning strike and electrocution

Sunburn

References

34 Toxic diseases

Disease

Chemical and organic toxins. Lead poisoning

Selenium toxicity

Metallic myelopathy—direct heavy metal toxicity

Sodium salt poisoning and water intoxication

Ammonated forage toxicity

Urea (non‐protein nitrogen) intoxication

Cyanide poisoning

Organochlorine compounds

Organophosphate and carbamate compounds

Strychnine

Metaldehyde

Fluoroacetate (compound 1080)

Arsanilic acid and 3‐nitro‐4‐hydroxyphenylarsonic acid (3‐nitro): Arsenic toxicoses

Aminoglycoside toxicity

Chronic toxicity by organomercury compounds

Ionophore toxicity—monensin, salinomycin, and lasolocid

Ivermectin and moxidectin

Methyl bromide

Procaine penicillin reaction

Miscellaneous known and suspected drugs and toxins

Plant and plant‐related toxins. Locoweed and Darling pea—swainsonine intoxication

Ataxia associated with sorghum spp. grasses

Nigropallidal encephalomalacia

Kochia scoparia (Mexican fireweed)

Stypandra and Helichrysum spp. poisoning

Coffee senna (Cassia spp.) plant neuromuscular toxicoses

Eggplant

Bracken fern and horsetail‐induced thiamine deficiency

Pasture‐associated stringhalt

Toxic plants and mycotoxins producing ataxia, weakness, and tremors

Weakness and ataxia syndromes

Tremor syndromes

Cerebellar disorders

Tutu: Coriaria spp. poisoning

Plant‐induced arthrogryposis

Atypical myopathy (seasonal pasture myopathy) in horses

Ataxia associated with stinging nettle

Miscellaneous toxic plants

Bacterial toxins. Botulism and the shaker foal syndrome

Tetanus due to Clostridium tetani neurotoxin

Enterotoxemic encephalopathy: Focal symmetrical encephalomalacia in ruminants and edema disease of pigs

Equine mycotoxic encephalomalacia associated with moldy corn

Miscellaneous biotoxicities. Tick paralysis

Seizures and muscle spasms associated with ticks and mites

Snake bite paralysis

References

35 Nutritional diseases

Disease

Vitamin A deficiency

Mulberry heart disease of pigs—vitamin E deficiency

Polioencephalomalacia and cerebrocotical necrosis in ruminants

Pantothenic acid deficiency

Masseter myopathy in horses (myopathy of muscles of mastication and deglutition)

Nicotinic acid deficiency

Equine motor neuron disease

Equine degenerative myeloencephalopathy (equine neuroaxonal dystrophy)

Enzootic ataxia—swayback—copper deficiency

Nutritional myodegeneration—white muscle disease—myodegeneration and steatitis

References

36 Metabolic diseases

Disease

Hepatic encephalopathy

Hyperammonemia

Uremic encephalopathy

Hypocalcemia (milk fever) and hypomagnesemia (grass staggers)

Ketosis (with hypoglycemia) in ruminants

Hypoglycemia

Hyponatremia

Hypernatremia

Hypokalemic syndrome in cattle

Anesthetic‐related hypoxia and anoxia

Cardiocirculatory collapse—shock

References

37 Neoplasms and other tumors

Disease Site

Brain

Neurocranium and cranial nerves

Spinal cord

Peripheral nerves

Diagnostic and therapeutic aspects

References

38 Multifactorial and idiopathic disorders

Disease

Equine neonatal encephalopathy

Nervous form of coccidiosis

Brainstem neuronal chromatolysis in cattle (bovine tauopathy)

Postanesthetic cerebral necrosis in horses

Sleep attacks—adult

Cervical vertebral malformation–malarticulation of horses

Cervical compressive myelopathy in young Texel and Beltex sheep

Congenital spinal stenosis of thoracolumbar vertebrae in beef calves

Selective poliomyelomalacia of sheep, goats, and calves

Postanesthetic myelopathy

Vascular malformations

Discospondylosis

Neurofibrillary degeneration

Embolic myelopathy

Miscellaneous degenerative myelopathies

Equine grass sickness (equine dysautonomia)

Recurrent laryngeal neuropathy

Aortic–iliac–femoral thrombosis and ischemic neuromyopathy

Idiopathic neuropathy with knuckling in horses

Acquired equine polyneuropathy of Nordic horses

Stiff‐horse syndrome

Kangaroo gait in sheep

Flying scapulae in ruminants

Dropped hock syndrome in cattle

Exertional rhabdomyolysis and capture myopathy

Postanesthetic limb myoneuropathy

References

Index

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Third edition

I. G. Joe Mayhew

.....

Musculoskeletal and painful disorders causing gait and postural disorders are far more commonly encountered in large animals than are those involving just the nervous system (Figure 2.13). Thus, two questions to be answered when evaluating gait and posture are, first, which limbs are abnormal, and second, is there evidence of lameness suggesting a musculoskeletal or painful component of any gait or posture abnormality?

Figure 2.13 Heavy patients with various neuromusculoskeletal disorders can have difficulty rising. Such patients, especially ruminants and pigs that adopt a dog‐sitting posture for several seconds to minutes while getting up, usually have lesions caudal to the thoracic limbs and to T2. However, adult ruminants are seen to rest in the field in such a posture without having an overt neuromusculoskeletal explanation. Also, occasionally patients such as this horse suffering from mild caudal cervical spinal cord compression caused by CVM may also adopt and maintain such postures. This horse was also a tongue sucker (see Chapters 5 and 18).

.....

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