Читать книгу Handbook of Microwave Component Measurements - Joel P. Dunsmore - Страница 4

1 Chapter 1Figure 1.1 Voltage source and two‐wire system.Figure 1.2 2‐port network connected to a source and load.Figure 1.3 1‐port network.Figure 1.4 Modulated signal through a network showing distortion due to only...Figure 1.5 An amplifier with internal noise sources.Figure 1.6 Output power of harmonics of an amplifier.Figure 1.7 Measurement of a two‐tone signal at the input and output of an am...Figure 1.8 Output power and IM tone‐power versus input power.Figure 1.9 Spectral regrowth causing ACP in a 16 QAM signal.Figure 1.10 An NPR signal showing the total power and ratios of band power....Figure 1.11 A transmission line modeled as distributed elements.Figure 1.12 Impedance of a real transmission line at low frequency.Figure 1.13 An airline coaxial transmission line.Figure 1.14 Loss of a 15 cm airline and a 15 cm semi‐rigid Teflon‐loaded coa...Figure 1.15 A model of a coax line with periodic impedance disturbances.Figure 1.16 The return loss of a line with structural return loss.Figure 1.17 In‐series and between‐series connectors.Figure 1.18 A 7 mm connector.Figure 1.19 Examples of Type‐N connectors: commercial (upper) and precision ...Figure 1.20 Performance of a precision and a standard Type‐N connector.Figure 1.21 75 Ω Type‐N connectors: commercial (upper) and precision (lower)...Figure 1.22 Insertion loss of 75 Ω connectors.Figure 1.23 3.5 mm (f) and (m) (upper left); SMA (f) and (m) connectors (upp...Figure 1.24 Performance of SMA and 3.5 mm mated‐pair connectors.Figure 1.25 A 3.5 mm connector compared with 2.92 mm female (upper) and male...Figure 1.26 Performance of a mated pair, 2.92 compared with 3.5 mm.Figure 1.27 Response of mated pair of male‐to‐male and female‐to‐female 1.85...Figure 1.28 Response of a 1 mm mated pair and a 1.85 mm mated pair.Figure 1.29 PC board SMC launches.Figure 1.30 Planer transmission lines: microstrip (a), coplanar waveguide (b...Figure 1.31 CPW‐mounted IC.Figure 1.32 Examples of microwave filters: cellular phone handset filter (up...Figure 1.33 Directional couplers.Figure 1.34 The effect of attenuation at the input of a coupler.Figure 1.35 Coupler with mismatch after the test port flow graph.Figure 1.36 Isolator (left) and circulator (right).Figure 1.37 Schematic representation of a circulator.Figure 1.38 Models for a series resistor (left) and shunt resistor (right)....Figure 1.39 Input match of a single SMT resistor and two in parallel.Figure 1.40 Model of an SMT capacitor.Figure 1.41 Dual‐LO frequency converter.

2 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 A TR network analyzer block diagram.Figure 2.2 S‐parameter block diagrams for a three‐receiver and four‐receiver...Figure 2.3 Multiple sources in a single VNA.Figure 2.4 Example of a VNA source block diagram.Figure 2.5 Ratio source match: trace when using a power splitter (upper) and...Figure 2.6 Simplified diagram of source power match.Figure 2.7 Measured incident power into a load termination and an open termi...Figure 2.8 Block diagram for measuring power source‐match.Figure 2.9 A line stretcher used for match measurements.Figure 2.10 Measurement of long line indicating power source‐match using an ...Figure 2.11 Measured source output impedance away from the source frequency:...Figure 2.12 Schematic of a directional bridge.Figure 2.13 Adding a transformer between the source and the bridge.Figure 2.14 Replacing bridge elements with RF ports.Figure 2.15 A bridge redrawn to show the coupling factor.Figure 2.16 An example of a directional bridge from the HP 8753B.Figure 2.17 RF performance of a directional bridge.Figure 2.18 A directional coupler used in VNAs.Figure 2.19 Block diagram of a 1+gamma reflectometer.Figure 2.20 Smith chart showing reflections of a 1+gamma bridge with an open...Figure 2.21 Schematic of a sampler.Figure 2.22 Spurs from a source crossing a harmonic of the VCO.Figure 2.23 Digital IF block diagram.Figure 2.24 A satellite multiplexer with many outputs.Figure 2.25 Simple switch tree test set.Figure 2.26 Full cross‐bar switching test set.Figure 2.27 Extension test set block diagram.Figure 2.28 12‐port system using a 4‐port VNA and two extension test sets....Figure 2.29 A 50‐port VNA system comprised of 6‐port and 2‐port modules.Figure 2.30 mm‐Wave Head block diagram with broadband capability.Figure 2.31 A 4‐port, 900 Hz to 130 GHz VNA system using mm‐wave extenders....Figure 2.32 Effects of noise floor on an S21 measurement.Figure 2.33 VNA source signal where phase noise rises above noise floor.Figure 2.34 Example of trace noise decreasing with increased signal level, u...Figure 2.35 Impedance and admittance Smith charts.Figure 2.36 Smith chart (right) and admittance chart (left) with wrapped pha...Figure 2.37 An impedance value rotated by 180° 50 Ω line.Figure 2.38 25 Ω termination proceeded by half‐wavelength segments of 12.5, ...Figure 2.39 Concatenation of two devices.Figure 2.40 Y and Z conversion circuits.

3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 Signal flow diagram for a forward and reverse measurements of a D...Figure 3.2 Signal flow diagram with source and receiver errors included.Figure 3.3 8‐term error model, with four measured waves.Figure 3.4 Determining the error terms graphically for open/short/load respo...Figure 3.5 The correct re‐measurement of an open and short after calibration...Figure 3.6 Model for an open circuit.Figure 3.7 Physical construction of (a) female open, (b) male open with exte...Figure 3.8 Variations in the open reflection coefficient due to radiation fo...Figure 3.9 Model for a short standard.Figure 3.10 Short circuit standards (a) male test port, (b) female test port...Figure 3.11 Load elements (a) male test port, (b) female test port.Figure 3.12 (a) Typical model for a load standard, (b) model for a load show...Figure 3.13 Representation of a sliding load.Figure 3.14 Smith chart measurement of a sliding load at a single frequency,...Figure 3.15 Error due to ignoring the length of a non‐insertable Thru, compa...Figure 3.16 Using UT cal to provide a 90° on‐wave calibration.Figure 3.17 Ecal modules are available in a variety of port configurations, ...Figure 3.18 Measurement of the internal standards on an Ecal™.Figure 3.19 Custom multiport calibration test set including Ecal, noise figu...Figure 3.20 Signal flow diagram during source power calibration.Figure 3.21 Variation in a1 due to mismatch on port 1.Figure 3.22 Results from a linearity error measurement for −25 dB (upper) an...Figure 3.23 Block diagram for characterizing incident power mismatch.Figure 3.24 Ripple in incident power (a1_a) and measured source power (a1_s)...Figure 3.25 Ripple in the actual incident power (upper) when the ALC referen...Figure 3.26 Power measurement of an amplifier after a receiver response cali...Figure 3.27 Setup for the Cal All function.Figure 3.28 Dialog for setting the master channel power and attenuator value...Figure 3.29 Cal All Mechanical Devices dialog.Figure 3.30 Cal All creates a master cal with only unique frequency points....Figure 3.31 Using multiple Thrus to link ports.Figure 3.32 Multiport TVAC test setup with CalPods in a the chamber.Figure 3.33 (Upper) After flexing the test cable, (Lower) after re‐correctio...Figure 3.34 Dialog for selecting wave correction and devolving ports.Figure 3.35 (Upper) Measurement of an airline with a response calibration an...Figure 3.36 Using an external attenuator to reduce power to the VNA port 2....Figure 3.37 Measurement of an airline with Enhanced Response Calibration, wi...Figure 3.38 Ripple envelope of the calibration load at the end of an airline...Figure 3.39 Determining directivity with time‐domain gating.Figure 3.40 Ripples from an open and short at the end of an airline.Figure 3.41 The computed residual source‐match shown in the lower plot.Figure 3.42 Measurement of a test port load match, upper is with a good cali...Figure 3.43 Two examples of S21 uncertainty with different coverage factors....Figure 3.44 Uncertainty depends upon the Calkit quality.Figure 3.45 Uncertainty changes with DUT loss.Figure 3.46 Phase error as a result of an error signal.Figure 3.47 A good dog and a good cable: how long will they stay good?Figure 3.48 Noise and dynamic accuracy error versus drive.Figure 3.49 (upper) Error in S11 changing the attenuator difference for 5 an...Figure 3.50 Attenuator offset applied as a de‐embedding after the attenuator...Figure 3.51 Noise added in a signal trace vs. source power.Figure 3.52 Circular interpolation of the load match term.Figure 3.53 Interpolation results with various point spacing.

4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Cosine of frequency 8.5 Hz (left), FFT of the waveform in the lef...Figure 4.2 Analytically derived impulse reflection response versus VNA time‐...Figure 4.3 Sinc‐squared frequency response continuous and sampled with a sam...Figure 4.4 One‐pole filter frequency response with and without truncation.Figure 4.5 Windows for Beta factors 0, 3, and 6 (upper); windows applied to ...Figure 4.6 VNA unit step response comprised of a periodic portion (which is ...Figure 4.7 Convolution of the frequency gate response.Figure 4.8 Time gates at three center times (upper); time response of gated ...Figure 4.9 Model of concatenated lines of different impedances (upper), step...Figure 4.10 Model of 2 capacitive discontinuities (upper), step response of ...Figure 4.11 S ₁₁ response of two capacitive discontinuities (light gray) and ...Figure 4.12 S ₁₁ of two capacitive discontinuities (light gray) not gated, S ₁...Figure 4.13 Circuit with 2 capacitive discontinuities, and an offset impedan...Figure 4.14 Time gated response of the first discontinuity (thick gray, “1st...Figure 4.15 Eye diagram example with key attributes identified.Figure 4.16 Enhanced TDR application on a VNA.Figure 4.17 Eye‐diagram on a VNA‐based time‐domain transmission test.

5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Measured trace noise with changes in IF BW, trace averaging, and ...Figure 5.2 Measurement of an airline with normal calibration and with additi...Figure 5.3 Illustration of IF delay for a long cable.Figure 5.4 Comparing stepped with swept mode on a 3 m cable insertion loss m...Figure 5.5 Calibrating in a stepped mode and measuring in a swept mode.Figure 5.6 Attenuation measurement of a 1 m cable.Figure 5.7 Cable measurement with poor connecters, frequency domain (upper),...Figure 5.8 S ₁₁ and S ₂₂ after gating, indicating the vector error of the each...Figure 5.9 Port extension is applied to each port to determine the location ...Figure 5.10 Port matching adds the negative of the reactive element for cabl...Figure 5.11 Comparing the cable S ₂₁ with compensation and with good connecto...Figure 5.12 A cable with input reflections showing S ₁₁ (right) and S ₂₁ (left...Figure 5.13 Compensating S ₂₁ for the effect of bad input and output connecto...Figure 5.14 Using a power meter as a receiver at the end of a long cable, co...Figure 5.15 Measurement at the end of a long test port cable comparing full ...Figure 5.16 Example of a recorrection system for removing test cable drift....Figure 5.17 Light traces: drift in S ₂₁ and S ₁₁ due to a long cable; dark tra...Figure 5.18 Residual directivity and insertion loss as a function of loss be...Figure 5.19 Dark trace: the transmission of a cable; light trace: square roo...Figure 5.20 Lower window: time‐domain response of the shorted cable, with ga...Figure 5.21 Comparing measurements of a short piece of formed semi‐rigid cab...Figure 5.22 Configuration for in‐line‐connector test.Figure 5.23 Frequency response (upper), time‐domain response, for inline con...Figure 5.24 Response of the in‐line connector, gated and compensated for los...Figure 5.25 Measuring a cable with a variable‐impedance bridge.Figure 5.26 Return loss and insertion loss of a long cable; upper is normal ...Figure 5.27 SRL measurement at 3201 points; upper trace is before connector ...Figure 5.28 Frequency and time domain of a cable with stepped impedances. Up...Figure 5.29 Cable impedance as a function of delay down the cable. Upper win...Figure 5.30 Examples of changing the phase sampling for a long cable; only t...Figure 5.31 Testing S ₂₁ and S ₁₁ of a filter, using marker tracking to find t...Figure 5.32 Using the marker search function to find a filter bandwidth.Figure 5.33 S ₁₁, S ₂₁, and excess loss of a filter.Figure 5.34 Limit testing when the measurement point does not equal the limi...Figure 5.35 Using trace statistics to report the peak‐to‐peak ripple in the ...Figure 5.36 The flatness and slope of a filter are displayed, along with the...Figure 5.37 Transmission response with three different IF bandwidths and thr...Figure 5.38 Segmented sweeps allow optimized measurements of filter transmis...Figure 5.39 Block diagram of a VNA with configurable test set and reversed p...Figure 5.40 Increased dynamic range and speed using a reversed coupler.Figure 5.41 Group delay on a filter with various number of points and variou...Figure 5.42 Group delay results from applying a fixed‐delay aperture to the ...Figure 5.43 Saw filter response frequency (upper), time domain (lower).Figure 5.44 Phase response of a filter before and after setting electrical d...Figure 5.45 Least‐squares and min‐max fit of a phase deviation.Figure 5.46 Measuring couplers: upper plot is the three main terms, lower pl...Figure 5.47 4‐port coupler using a fixed external loan, a 4‐port VNA, and po...Figure 5.48 A 4‐port 90° hybrid and a 4‐port 180° hybrid.Figure 5.49 Response of a 90° 4‐port hybrid.Figure 5.50 Typical form of a Wilkinson power splitter.Figure 5.51 Response of a splitter.Figure 5.52 Isolator behavior in the presence of a non‐ideal load.Figure 5.53 Measurements of an isolator.Figure 5.54 Schematic of a 1‐port resonator with coupling capacitance.Figure 5.55 Return loss plot of a resonator with direct coupling and with ma...Figure 5.56 Smith chart plot of a directly connected resonator and one match...Figure 5.57 Measurement of an antenna return loss.Figure 5.58 Change in apparent tuned frequency due to directivity errors or ...

6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Relative gain of an amplifier versus compression level.Figure 6.2 Amplifier pretest: a wide band sweep looks for instability, and c...Figure 6.3 Typical plot showing S‐parameters, gain, solation, input, and out...Figure 6.4 Match‐corrected power measurements of an amplifier.Figure 6.5 Match‐corrected powers with software Rx‐leveling.Figure 6.6 Typical configuration for measuring DC power consumption.Figure 6.7 Measurement output power and DC current, for three different inpu...Figure 6.8 S‐parameters, K‐factor, and max stable gain.Figure 6.9 Resistance is added to the input network to improve the stability...Figure 6.10 Circuit response after matching.Figure 6.11 Stability circles at the center frequency.Figure 6.12 Mu1 and Mu2 for a conditionally stable amplifier.Figure 6.13 Mu1 and Mu2 for an amplifier after port matching to make it unco...Figure 6.14 Available gain of an amplifier computed from the output match (G...Figure 6.15 Transduce gain for an amplifier between two filters (dark trace)...Figure 6.16 The overall gain from embedding the filter response using port m...Figure 6.17 Detecting the onset of compression.Figure 6.18 CW power sweep to find compression.Figure 6.19 Back‐off and X‐Y methods of finding compression.Figure 6.20 Phase vs. drive and AM‐to‐PM.Figure 6.21 Swept frequency 1 dB compression measurements.Figure 6.22 A 3‐D surface of compression versus frequency and input power.Figure 6.23 S21 gain of an amplifier in compression, normal and with match c...Figure 6.24 Swept power PAE (upper); swept frequency PAE (lower).Figure 6.25 PAE versus power and frequency on a 3‐D surface.Figure 6.26 Error‐corrected measurements on a high‐gain amplifier.Figure 6.27 VNA block diagram with port 1 coupler reversed.Figure 6.28 S21 noise on a high gain amplifier with various settings; S11, S...Figure 6.29 Configuration for high power drive using rear panel loops for te...Figure 6.30 High power drive with external couplers.Figure 6.31 Measurement setup for +46 dBm maximum power.Figure 6.32 Configuration for high power test where the load changes with po...Figure 6.33 Timing diagram for wideband pulsed measurements.Figure 6.34 Narrowband pulse measurement spectrum and time measurement.Figure 6.35 Pulsed RF amplifier measurement show a1 power before and after R...Figure 6.36 Pulse measurement shows gain, phase, and output power of an ampl...Figure 6.37 A narrowband mode pulse profile on a narrow pulse.Figure 6.38 Pulse‐to‐pulse measurements.Figure 6.39 Pulse profile showing DC measurements and PAE.Figure 6.40 Spectrum plot of an amplifier's harmonic response.Figure 6.41 Setting up for a harmonic measurement.Figure 6.42 Defining harmonic measurement parameters.Figure 6.43 Harmonic measurements on a VNA.Figure 6.44 Evaluating VNA harmonics: source harmonics (upper); receiver har...Figure 6.45 A harmonic enhancement circuit with its frequency response.Figure 6.46 Doherty amplifier block diagram.Figure 6.47 Driving an amplifier from a dual source VNA.Figure 6.48 Frequency sweep of Doherty amplifier.Figure 6.49 Power sweep of a Doherty amplifier.Figure 6.50 Power and PAE versus phase of the input.Figure 6.51 S21, S22, and T22 terms as a function of input power.Figure 6.52 The vector effect of a2 and a2* on apparent reflection.Figure 6.53 Illustration of a source and load‐pull system.Figure 6.54 Block diagram of a VNA with active load‐pulling.Figure 6.55 Active load‐pull showing output power and effective Hot‐S ₂₂.Figure 6.56 Schematic for an X‐parameter based Load‐pull simulation.Figure 6.57 Comparing X‐parameter simulated load‐pull with real load‐pull va...Figure 6.58 PAE contours versus load impedance.Figure 6.59 Output (b2) spectrum of an amplifier with a single input signal....Figure 6.60 Traditional Hot‐S ₂₂ measure of a total reflection from an open p...Figure 6.61 Traditional Hot‐S ₂₂, showing the output reflection of the amplif...Figure 6.62 Spectrum of traditional Hot‐S ₂₂ with a non‐linear amplifier.Figure 6.63 Swept frequency response, linear and high power, showing normal ...Figure 6.64 Gain versus power for an amplifier, comparing traditional 2‐port...Figure 6.65 S ₂₂ and Hot‐S ₂₂ for a power sweep.Figure 6.66 LogMag of S ₂₂ and Hot‐S ₂₂ in a power sweep.Figure 6.67 X ^s (2,2) and X ^t (2,2) versus drive power.

7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Input, LO, and output wave forms from a single‐balanced mixer.Figure 7.2 Conduction of a double‐balanced mixer.Figure 7.3 Image reject and IQ mixer topologies: standard topology (upper), ...Figure 7.4 Graphical representation of signals at the input and output of a ...Figure 7.5 Schematic of a normal (a) and image (b) mixers showing incident a...Figure 7.6 Schematic representations of mixers with nonideal responses.Figure 7.7 Actual circuit (a) and equivalent circuit at the RF (b) for a sou...Figure 7.8 Actual circuit (a) and equivalent circuit at the RF (b) for a sou...Figure 7.9 Understand the effect of phase shift of the LO: transmission phas...Figure 7.10 Typical output response of a mixer showing harmonics and spuriou...Figure 7.11 Diagram for mixer high‐order products.Figure 7.12 Multistage frequency converter.Figure 7.13 A mixer as a 12‐port device to describe all first‐order products...Figure 7.14 Mixer signals emitted or scattered (reflected) back from the inp...Figure 7.15 Typical connection for mixer measurements.Figure 7.16 Mixer measurement graphical user interface.Figure 7.17 A complete mixer “S‐parameter” measurements.Figure 7.18 Down/up‐conversion method for measuring phase.Figure 7.19 Phase response using down/up‐conversion.Figure 7.20 Vector mixer measurement system using a parallel path.Figure 7.21 Phase deviation for a mixer using the parallel (VMC) method.Figure 7.22 The synchronous sweeping is accomplished by a common reference a...Figure 7.23 Amplitude and phase response of a single receiver in a normal VN...Figure 7.24 Phase response of the B and R1 receivers a standard VNA (upper p...Figure 7.25 Phase stitching at synthesizer band breaks.Figure 7.26 The phase response of the IPwr and OPwr, with phase stitching is...Figure 7.27 Comparison of three methods measurement for phase deviation.Figure 7.28 Comparison of group delay responses for various methods, each of...Figure 7.29 Defining a swept LO measurement using a GUI.Figure 7.30 Fixed IF, swept RF/LO measurement of a mixer for two different I...Figure 7.31 Measuring phase response of multichannel fixed IF converters.Figure 7.32 Setup for swept LO phase‐difference measurement.Figure 7.33 Gain comparison and path‐to‐path phase difference of a multichan...Figure 7.34 Measuring the absolute phase response of a mixer.Figure 7.35 Absolute phase response of a mixer under swept LO conditions.Figure 7.36 Three‐mixer method of for measuring mixer phase on a VNA.Figure 7.37 Amplitude response of Mixer A measured using SMC and three‐mixer...Figure 7.38 The reflection method of mixer characterization is essentially a...Figure 7.39 Mixer characterized using the reflection method.Figure 7.40 The phase and delay response of a phase reference.Figure 7.41 Calibration of the VNA using a phase reference.Figure 7.42 Measured amplitude and phase response of the phase reference at ...Figure 7.43 Amplitude, phase deviation, and delay of the b2 receiver in norm...Figure 7.44 Upper: individual input and output response of the VNA receiver ...Figure 7.45 Receiver tracking for mixer test plotted as a function of VNA re...Figure 7.46 Raw and correct delay response of a mixer.Figure 7.47 Comparing the three mixer‐phase calibration methods.Figure 7.48 Delay and gain measurements with different LO frequencies.Figure 7.49 Mixer parameters SC₂₁ and S ₁₁, and S ₃₃ (LO match) while making a...Figure 7.50 LO power effects on SC₂₁ over a range of RF/IF frequencies.Figure 7.51 RF conversion gain versus frequency for various LO drive levels ...Figure 7.52 Normalized conversion gain versus frequency for various RF drive...Figure 7.53 Conversion gain vs. RF drive for several different fixed LO powe...Figure 7.54 Automated GCA measurements for the same mixer with various LO dr...Figure 7.55 Setup for measuring mixer IMD.Figure 7.56 Third‐ and fifth‐order IM product versus LO power, as well as ou...Figure 7.57 Spectrum plot of IM products at RF = −5 dBm, LO = −9 dBm.Figure 7.58 Third‐ and fifth‐order IMD power versus RF power, as well as IIP...Figure 7.59 Swept RF power IM3 and IIP3 with different LO drives.Figure 7.60 Upper: mixer IIP3 and gain versus frequency for three different ...Figure 7.61 Magnitude, phase, and delay response of a frequency doubler.Figure 7.62 Segment table for higher order products measurement.Figure 7.63 Higher‐order products measured using overlapped segments.Figure 7.64 Higher‐order products as a function of LO drive power.Figure 7.65 Using DIQ to measure higher‐order products.Figure 7.66 Measure of spurs versus LO drive power.Figure 7.67 Segment sweep provides a way to properly create a swept LO delay...Figure 7.68 Background acquisitions for software locking of an embedded LO....Figure 7.69 Comparison of software versus hardware locking for embedded LO m...Figure 7.70 Measurement setup for IQ up‐converter testing.Figure 7.71 IQ up‐converter setup UI.Figure 7.72 Example trace definitions for IQ up‐converters.Figure 7.73 Measurement of IQ up‐converter.Figure 7.74 LO feed‐through, image rejection and gain (upper); I/Q input imb...Figure 7.75 Image rejection as a function of amplitude and phase imbalance....Figure 7.76 Image rejection after a fixed phase and amplitude offset in the ...Figure 7.77 Measurement block diagram for an I/Q down‐converter.Figure 7.78 IQ power and image power on an IQ down‐converter.Figure 7.79 I and Q individual and relative amplitude (upper), and phase (lo...

8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Illustrating the resolution of the RBW filter.Figure 8.2 Comparison of filter shapes: Gaussian, flat‐top, and uniform.Figure 8.3 Spectrum analyzer block diagram up/down‐conversion.Figure 8.4 Diagram of SA tracking YIG filter, with FFT detection.Figure 8.5 Images of a single CW signal, as measured on a non‐image‐protecte...Figure 8.6 Images of two LO settings. Only one signal remains in the same pl...Figure 8.7 Raw IF response of a VNA‐based spectrum analysis mode.Figure 8.8 Corrected IF response.Figure 8.9 Comparing amplitude accuracy for different SA channel FFT widths....Figure 8.10 Response of VNA‐based FFT SA with different FFT widths.Figure 8.11 Swept‐mode SA measurement of an AWGN signal.Figure 8.12 CDF curve for an AWGN signal and a QPSK signal.Figure 8.13 CCDF cures of AWGN and QPSK signals.Figure 8.14 The time‐domain amplitude (in dBm) of an AWGN signal.Figure 8.15 Arb signal with 101 tones, zero phase, in the time domain.Figure 8.16 FFT mode SA measurement of an AWGN signal.Figure 8.17 Swept‐mode SA measurement with slow sweep time.Figure 8.18 Swept‐mode measurement of AWGN signal with 30 kHz VBW.Figure 8.19 FFT mode measurement of AWGN with 30 kHz VBW.Figure 8.20 Measure of AWGN signal with 75 kHz RBW.Figure 8.21 AWGN signal where RBW acquisition time is longer than the wavefo...Figure 8.22 Swept‐mode display with narrow RBW matches FFT mode.Figure 8.23 Close‐in spectrum of AWGN waveform showing multitone components....Figure 8.24 Coherent time averaging (or vector averaging) reduces noise on a...Figure 8.25 Band‐power measurements show difference between using peak and a...Figure 8.26 Band‐power readings don't change with change in RBW.Figure 8.27 Lowering the RBW lowers the minimum detectable power with multit...Figure 8.28 Same measurement as above with 20 dB lower signal power.Figure 8.29 Vector averaging used to improve detection sensitivity.Figure 8.30 Vector averaging improves power detection in normal band‐power m...Figure 8.31 Amplitude accuracy in swept mode SA at 24 GHz center frequency: ...Figure 8.32 Wideband power accuracy of VNA spectrum analyzer mode.Figure 8.33 IMD measurements with offsets in the main tone power.Figure 8.34 Projecting IM tones to obtain the IP3 point.Figure 8.35 SA and VNA measurement of IM spectrums.Figure 8.36 Swept‐power IMD measurements.Figure 8.37 Swept‐center frequency IMD measurements.Figure 8.38 Swept‐delta frequency IMD measurements.Figure 8.39 Block diagram of combined source with isolators.Figure 8.40 Source‐generated IMD due to direct cross‐modulation with and wit...Figure 8.41 Receiver‐generated IMD in swept IMD mode, at +5 dBm input, with ...Figure 8.42 Spectrum of an AWGN driven into an amplifier that is non‐linear....Figure 8.43 ACPR measure of a 64QAM signal measured through an amplifier; lo...Figure 8.44 Multicarrier adjacent channel level measurements with one channe...Figure 8.45 Traditional setup for generating an NPR signal.Figure 8.46 CCDF curve of a noise‐like waveform generated from a random phas...Figure 8.47 NPR signal with band‐power markers.Figure 8.48 NPR using Band Noise markers to get a direct reading of NPR.Figure 8.49 NPR signal with no corrections.Figure 8.50 Corrected NPR signal.Figure 8.51 NPR measurement using mutitone detection methods.Figure 8.52 NPR with vector averaging.Figure 8.53 Mapping data to IQ space.Figure 8.54 Filtering the IQ waveform.Figure 8.55 Mapping IQ to a constellation diagram.Figure 8.56 Gain, delay, and clipping on a signal.Figure 8.57 Sampling the signal at the symbol rate.Figure 8.58 Filtering the received signal.Figure 8.59 Renormalizing the received signal.Figure 8.60 Time aligning the signal.Figure 8.61 Resampling and the delta IQ waveforms.Figure 8.62 I and Q magnitude‐squared waveforms.Figure 8.63 Measuring EVM with a VNA.Figure 8.64 QPSK and QAM signals; upper plot is constellation diagrams, and ...Figure 8.65 Display from PNA‐X Modulation Distortion application, with equal...Figure 8.66 High‐order products from a two‐stage frequency converter.Figure 8.67 Measurement of the three ports (RF – input, LO, and IF – output)...Figure 8.68 Measurements of an unstable spur using traditional swept SA (upp...Figure 8.71 Time‐gated spectrum analysis (upper) and pulse profile (lower)....Figure 8.69 Spectrum of a signal pulsed with 1 μs with 10% duty cycle....Figure 8.70 Wideband spectrum of a pulsed signal.Figure 8.72 Measuring a close‐in spur in a pulsed signal. The upper plot sho...

9 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Noise bandwidth of a VNA with zero‐IF receiver.Figure 9.2 Noise variation over 1000 samples, with a 1 or 100 averaging.Figure 9.3 Measured error versus input noise power.Figure 9.4 Y‐factor computation based on hot and cold sources, and effects o...Figure 9.5 Noise figure computed from cold source; also shown is the Y‐facto...Figure 9.6 Noise parameters describe the noise figure as a function of sourc...Figure 9.7 An amplifier with internal noise sources.Figure 9.8 Noise representation of a 2‐port network using s‐parameter repres...Figure 9.9 Noise parameter represented as T‐matrix.Figure 9.10 Traditional noise parameter measurement system.Figure 9.11 VNA system for making vector‐error‐corrected noise‐figure measur...Figure 9.12 Vector‐corrected noise‐figure measurement, compared to Y‐factor ...Figure 9.13 Noise parameter using Ecal as a tuner.Figure 9.14 Tuner‐based noise parameters.Figure 9.15 Noise parameters using a mechanical tuner.Figure 9.16 Defining the G/T of an active antenna.Figure 9.17 Using Y‐factor to measure G/T.Figure 9.18 VNA using cold‐source method to measure G/T.Figure 9.19 Range loss measurement.Figure 9.20 Y‐factor mixer measurement illustration of double‐sideband noise...Figure 9.21 Comparison of Y‐factor NF, cold‐source NF, and SC ₂₁.Figure 9.22 Comparison of Y‐factor and cold‐source on a mixer with no image ...Figure 9.23 Errors due to excess converted noise of the LO.Figure 9.24 Error in noise figure due to excess LO noise.Figure 9.25 SA noise measurements with various settings image reject and RBW...Figure 9.26 Hot and cold noise measurements and Y‐factor computation, compar...Figure 9.27 Carrier to noise measurements as well as a measure of input sign...Figure 9.28 Noise‐figure verification device.Figure 9.29 Photo of the actual verification device.Figure 9.30 Signal flow diagram of a noise verification device.Figure 9.31 Signal flow diagram from computing the overall gain of the verif...Figure 9.32 Signal low diagram for noise power out under matched conditions....Figure 9.33 Relative noise power from the verification device.Figure 9.34 ADS simulation of the verification device.Figure 9.35 Comparing ADS simulation with analytic computation.Figure 9.36 Difference between ADS simulation and analytic computation.Figure 9.37 Measurement of NF verification device versus analytic computatio...Figure 9.38 NFA 4002 measurement compared to analytic computation.Figure 9.39 NFA 4000 measurement compared to analytic computation.

10 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 A 4‐port network used as a balanced amplifier.Figure 10.2 A 3‐port device used as a single‐ended to balanced device.Figure 10.3 A PC test board for characterizing differential lines.Figure 10.4 16 S‐parameters of a balanced transmission line.Figure 10.5 Comparing S ₂₁, S ₂₃, and S _dd21.Figure 10.6 Display of all 16 mixed‐mode parameters, each mode is displayed ...Figure 10.7 Frequency domain (upper); time domain of Sdd11 and Scc11 (lower)...Figure 10.8 4‐port single‐ended S‐parameters of a differential device.Figure 10.9 Mixed‐mode parameters for a differential amplifier.Figure 10.10 A differential amplifier driven with a single‐ended signal.Figure 10.11 Example schematic of a differential amplifier.Figure 10.12 Driving an amplifier with true‐mode (upper) and single‐ended (l...Figure 10.13 An example case where the input is non‐linear and not‐different...Figure 10.14 Non‐linear non‐differential input driven with a true‐differenti...Figure 10.15 Amplifier with input clipping.Figure 10.16 Two‐tone response of a non‐linear differential amplifier.Figure 10.17 Block diagram of a 4‐port dual source VNA.Figure 10.18 Error in phase due to DUT mismatch.Figure 10.19 True mode vs. single‐ended measurements for differential S‐para...Figure 10.20 True‐mode vs. single‐ended measurements for common‐mode S‐param...Figure 10.21 Fixed‐frequency swept‐power measurement showing differential ga...Figure 10.22 Differential gain for a normal differential amplifier, measured...Figure 10.23 Swept power measurements of the mixed‐mode transmission paramet...Figure 10.24 Non‐linear magnitude and phase response of S _dd21 for SE and tru...Figure 10.25 User interface for setting phase sweep.Figure 10.26 Phase‐skew test on a differential amplifier.Figure 10.27 Setup for differential harmonics.Figure 10.28 Gain, harmonic power, and THD of a differential amplifier.Figure 10.29 Output power, second and third harmonic versus input phase.Figure 10.30 Second harmonic response (upper), third harmonic repsonse (lowe...Figure 10.31 Swept power harmonics, with single‐ended and differential resul...Figure 10.32 Swept‐power harmonics (upper) and THD (lower).Figure 10.33 Examples of several RF transformers, baluns, and a hybrid.Figure 10.34 User interface to save mixed‐mode parameters to an S2P file.Figure 10.35 Measurement of SE to differential response from the difference ...Figure 10.36 Measurement of SE to common‐mode response from the sum port of ...Figure 10.37 Test setup for using hybrids to test differential parameters.Figure 10.38 Frequency response for differential parameters using de‐embeddi...Figure 10.39 Non‐linear response to a power sweep using hybrids to test S _dd2...Figure 10.40 Swept‐frequency IMD measurements.Figure 10.41 Spectrum plot of IMD for a differential amplifier measured with...Figure 10.42 Swept‐power IMD measurement of a limiting differential amplifie...Figure 10.43 Measuring IMD on a normal differential amplifier, using hybrids...Figure 10.44 Measurement of IMD for a normal differential amplifier with SE ...Figure 10.45 The SE measurements of a limiting amplifier shows poor predicti...Figure 10.46 Block diagram for differential IMD with external sources.Figure 10.47 Frequency setup for differential IMD without baluns.Figure 10.48 Source setup for differential IMD.Figure 10.49 Differential IMD parameters.Figure 10.50 Swept‐frequency IMD power of a differential amplifier, measured...Figure 10.51 Amplifier with internal noise sources.Figure 10.52 Noise figure and gain, and DUTRNPI measurement for a differenti...Figure 10.53 Common mode gain and noise figure.Figure 10.54 Noise figure measured on single‐ended inputs.Figure 10.55 Differential noise parameters.

11 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 PC board designed for SMT part characterization.Figure 11.2 Analyzing the thru standard.Figure 11.3 Comparing the load connector to the thru connector.Figure 11.4 Comparing load connector soldering to thru connector.Figure 11.5 Thru measurements with and without ground solder.Figure 11.6 Difference between each end of the thru and the load connector....Figure 11.7 Measuring just the load by notch gating the connector.Figure 11.8 Residual load error from equivalent load.Figure 11.9 Open and short connector repeatability.Figure 11.10 Finding a model for the open and the short.Figure 11.11 Models versus measured for capacitance and inductance.Figure 11.12 Measurement of the thru after an unknown thru calibration.Figure 11.13 Measurement of a 100 Ω resistor connected shunt to ground.Figure 11.14 Model and measurements of shunt resistor.Figure 11.15 Signal flow diagram for a DUT in a fixture.Figure 11.16 Fixture flow graph for a unilateral DUT.Figure 11.17 Determining the phase of S ₂₁.Figure 11.18 De‐embedding setup dialog allowing arbitrary port selection.Figure 11.19 Port extension dialog including loss and waveguide compensation...Figure 11.20 Automatic port extension setup.Figure 11.21 Measurement of an open and shorted fixture (upper); after autom...Figure 11.22 S ₁₁ response after APE with and without mismatch compensation....Figure 11.23 Measurement of a shunt 10 pF capacitor; as measured in the fixt...Figure 11.24 Complete measurement of a shunt 10 pF capacitance with APE.Figure 11.25 Time‐domain transmission response of a fixture.Figure 11.26 Time‐domain response (gray, T11) and gated response (black, T11...Figure 11.27 Frequency response of the thru (S11_FixThru, narrow light trace...Figure 11.28 Computed value for S ₂₂ of the fixture (S22A) and actual fixture...Figure 11.29 Computed value of S ₂₁ (S21A_AFR) and actual fixture S ₂₁ (S21_Fi...Figure 11.30 Filter measurement comparing the actual filter, filter in a fix...Figure 11.31 Using AFR to compute PC board input and output fixtures.Figure 11.32 Comparing AFR measurement with in‐fixture cal standards.Figure 11.33 AFR with DUT fixture compensation.Figure 11.34 One‐port AFR with a short and an open standard used.Figure 11.35 Signal flow for an anti‐network.Figure 11.36 Representation of a DUT with input and output port matching, be...Figure 11.37 S‐parameters of an ideal transformer.Figure 11.38 Attenuator S ₁₁ and S ₂₁ (upper); de‐embedding the attenuator (mi...Figure 11.39 S‐parameter of a filter (upper); after normal de‐embedding (mid...Figure 11.40 Stability in S ₂₁ of a metrology cable and a flexible braded cab...Figure 11.41 Directivity stability of a metrology cable with a load (dark); ...Figure 11.42 Source match stability of a metrology cable (dark), stability o...Figure 11.43 Reflection tracking phase stability of a metrology cable and a ...