Читать книгу Plant Pathology and Plant Pathogens - John A. Lucas - Страница 4

1 Chapter 1Figure 1.1 A plant life cycle and some effects of disease.Figure 1.2 Some disease symptoms caused by pathogens infecting different pla...Figure 1.3 Club root disease of brassicas. (a) Primary infection causes dist...Figure 1.4 Rust of willows caused by Melampsora species. (a) Aerial view of ...Figure 1.5 Agents responsible for plant disease, disorders, and damage. High...Figure 1.6 Poplar tree infested by European mistletoe Viscum album.Figure 1.7 Effect of infection by the rust fungus Puccinia lagenophorae on s...Figure 1.8 Relationship between yield levels and crop loss, indicating econo...Figure 1.9 Comparison of proportions of total production of major food and c...Figure 1.10 A convergence of forces increasing the threat of plant disease....

2 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 Symbiotic relationships: + positive effects on partner; − n...Figure 2.2 Faba bean leaves infected by Botrytis fabae (left) showing necrot...Figure 2.3 Apple scab disease caused by Venturia inaequalis. (Left) Scab les...Figure 2.4 Nutritional modes in heterotrophic microorganisms.Figure 2.5 Use of Koch’s postulates to establish the etiology of a new disea...Figure 2.6 Relationships between host, pathogen, and disease reaction.Figure 2.7 The quadratic check, showing interactions between alleles of a ho...

3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 (a) Intercellular hypha (IH) of the oomycete Peronospora viciae i...Figure 3.2 Mycelial strands formed by a basidiomycete fungus. The fungus has...Figure 3.3 Specialized parasitic structures, known as haustoria, formed by t...Figure 3.4 Bacterial cell structure. (a) Electron micrograph of the bacteriu...Figure 3.5 Structure of tobacco mosaic virus (TMV). (a) Electron micrograph ...Figure 3.6 Viroid structures, showing (a) rod‐like secondary structure with ...Figure 3.7 The processes involved in pathogen dispersal and the scale on whi...Figure 3.8 Some routes by which pathogens are dispersed.Figure 3.9 Active discharge of ascospores of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum from s...Figure 3.10 Dispersal of spores or bacterial cells by rain drops from wet an...Figure 3.11 Vectors exploited by plant pathogens.Figure 3.12 The disease tetrahedron.Figure 3.13 Different routes of plant viruses in their aphid vectors. The gu...Figure 3.14 Survival strategies adopted by plant pathogens.Figure 3.15 Electron micrograph sections of (a) a multicellular conidium of Figure 3.16 Survival and germination of fungal sclerotia under natural condi...Figure 3.17 Daily changes in populations of Pseudomonas syringae on bean lea...Figure 3.18 Survival periods recorded for some pathogens in the field.

4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Activities involved in disease assessment and prediction.Figure 4.2 Serology‐based pathogen detection. (a) A sandwich ELISA assay. 1....Figure 4.3 Coconut lethal yellowing disease (LYD) caused by a phytoplasma. (...Figure 4.4 Next‐generation sequencing (NGS) workflow based on RNA‐seq ...Figure 4.5 Septoria tritici leaf blotch in England and Wales. (a) Risk map b...Figure 4.6 Distribution of Asian soybean rust (Phakopsora pachyrhizi) in the...Figure 4.7 Assessment of Septoria tritici leaf blotch of wheat (Zymoseptoria...Figure 4.8 Sensor technologies used for automated detection and evaluation o...Figure 4.9 Aerial photo of a winter wheat crop in the UK in June, showing di...Figure 4.10 Imaging plant health. (a) Octocopter drone carrying sensors. (b)...Figure 4.11 Some examples of equipment used to monitor the risk of disease. ...Figure 4.12 Numbers of three aphid species (Metopolophium dirhodum, Rhopalos...Figure 4.13 Contribution of the upper leaves and ear to final yield of wheat...Figure 4.14 Effects of brown rust (Puccinia triticina) of cereals. (a) Wheat...Figure 4.15 Relationship between late blight progress and yield loss of the ...Figure 4.16 Fungal pathogens that can contaminate cereal grain. (a) Ergot on...Figure 4.17 Incidence of black mold (Pilgeriella anacardii) in dwarf cashew ...

5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Records of occurrence of southern corn leaf blight (Bipolaris may...Figure 5.2 Epidemic growth curves for monocyclic (a,b) and polycylic (c,d) p...Figure 5.3 Disease increase with time plotted on a logarithmic scale.Figure 5.4 Disease models and their uses.Figure 5.5 Diagrammatic representation of the HLIR disease model. Boxes show...Figure 5.6 Example output from an HLIR model showing proportions of a host p...Figure 5.7 Disease gradient for bean rust, Uromyces phaseoli, dispersing fro...Figure 5.8 Annual incidence of Phytophthora infestans genotypes in UK popula...Figure 5.9 Hedgerow elm infected by Dutch elm disease showing chlorosis (yel...Figure 5.10 Global spread of yellow rust of wheat, Puccinia striifomis f.sp....Figure 5.11 Genomic analysis of field isolates of wheat yellow rust, Puccini...Figure 5.12 Progress of a potato late blight epidemic and the effects of two...Figure 5.13 Timeline of first occurrence of invasive forest pathogens in the...Figure 5.14 The five Ps of biosecurity, including national activities and in...Figure 5.15 Border biosecurity. (Top) Sign at Guarulhos International Airpor...Figure 5.16 Wart disease of potatoes, caused by Synchytrium endobioticum. In...

6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Some entry routes for plant pathogens. PSTVd potato spindle tuber...Figure 6.2 The external layers bounding herbaceous plant organs.Figure 6.3 Early infection stages of the rice blast fungus Magnaporthe oryza...Figure 6.4 Early development of fungal pathogens on host leaves viewed by sc...Figure 6.5 Model for induction of cutinase synthesis in spores of Fusarium s...Figure 6.6 Infection structures of stem‐ and root‐infecting fungi. (a) Scann...Figure 6.7 Response of Arabidopsis stomata to exposure to (a) a plant‐pathog...Figure 6.8 Pathogens that exploit wounds to infect the host. (a) Pink rot of...Figure 6.9 Intracellular structures formed by biotrophic fungi and oomycetes...Figure 6.10 The structure of haustoria. (a) Haustorium of flax rust Melampso...Figure 6.11 Proton symport model for nutrient transport across the haustoriu...Figure 6.12 Some patterns of pathogen invasion of plant tissues, based on cr...Figure 6.13 Invasion of vascular tissues of kiwifruit by Pseudomonas syringa...

7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Time course of respiration in two susceptible barley cultivars, W...Figure 7.2 Theories concerning stimulation of respiration in infected plants...Figure 7.3 Changes in photosynthesis of oak leaves following infection by th...Figure 7.4 Effect of Erysiphe polygoni on the rate of photosynthetic ¹⁴CO₂ a...Figure 7.5 Chlorophyll fluorescence images of barley leaf tissues infected w...Figure 7.6 Green island surrounding a lesion caused by the light leaf spot p...Figure 7.7 Translocation of ¹⁴C in healthy bean plants and plants infected b...Figure 7.8 Kinetics of efflux of ¹⁴C from healthy and rusted first leaves of...Figure 7.9 Cell wall invertase activity in Arabidopsis leaves following inoc...Figure 7.10 Vascular wilt syndrome. (a) Tomato plant infected by Verticilliu...Figure 7.11 Transpiration rates over 24 hours of healthy barley plants and b...Figure 7.12 Time course of symptom development on wheat leaves infected by Z...Figure 7.13 (a) Maize cob infected by smut, Ustilago maydis. Infection induc...

8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Experimental approaches to identifying pathogenicity genes. The e...Figure 8.2 A heat map showing stage‐specific expression of 104 genes encodin...Figure 8.3 Soft‐rot symptoms caused by Pectobacterium carotovora on potato (Figure 8.4 Diagrammatic version of the organization of pectate lyase (pel) g...Figure 8.5 Intramural growth of hypha of the cereal eyespot fungus Oculimacu...Figure 8.6 Comparison of numbers of genes encoding cellulose‐ and hemicellul...Figure 8.7 Original demonstration of effects of victorin on resistant (R) an...Figure 8.8 Some host‐specific toxins involved in plant disease, showing dive...Figure 8.9 Evidence for lateral transfer of a fungal virulence gene. An 11 k...Figure 8.10 Structures of some nonhost‐specific toxins involved in plant dis...Figure 8.11 Multiplication of the wildfire disease bacterium, Pseudomonas sy...Figure 8.12 Colonization and biofilm formation by the fireblight pathogen Er...Figure 8.13 Relationship between extracellular polysaccharide (EPS) producti...Figure 8.14 Crown gall Agrobacterium tumefaciens and hairy root disease A. r...Figure 8.15 Molecular processes underlying tumor induction in crown gall dis...

9 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Types of plant defense, based on existing anatomical or structura...Figure 9.2 Some preformed antimicrobial compounds from plant tissues.Figure 9.3 Relationship between production of the saponin‐detoxifying enzyme...Figure 9.4 Examples of nontoxic glycosides converted to inhibitory breakdown...Figure 9.5 (a) Inhibition of fungal growth by germinating radish seed and (b...Figure 9.6 Cell wall reactions to penetration by fungal pathogens. (a) Stain...Figure 9.7 Time course of accumulation of mRNA for hydroxyproline‐rich glyco...Figure 9.8 The hypersensitive response. (a) Local lesions formed on a tobacc...Figure 9.9 Diagrammatic overview of a plant cell undergoing the hypersensiti...Figure 9.10 Origin and structure of some phytoalexins.Figure 9.11 Bioassay of phytoalexins produced by broad bean (Vicia faba) lea...Figure 9.12 Accumulation of phaseollin (μg per inoculated site) in beans ino...Figure 9.13 Pathway for biosynthesis of phenylpropanoid defense metabolites ...Figure 9.14 Timing of induction of phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL) mRNA an...Figure 9.15 Induction of transcription of several defense‐related enzymes in...Figure 9.16 Electrophoretic separation of proteins extracted from healthy to...Figure 9.17 Plant and animal immunity compared.Figure 9.18 (a) Local and (b) systemic acquired resistance in plants.Figure 9.19 Basic model of systemic activation of plant defense. Inoculation...Figure 9.20 Some signal molecules involved in systemic resistance in plants....Figure 9.21 Induced resistance pathways in plants. Signal molecules implicat...Figure 9.22 Effect of seed treatment with the defense activator acibenzolar‐...

10 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 Genetic models of host–pathogen specificity. (a) Gene‐for‐gene s...Figure 10.2 Cloning bacterial avr genes by function. Race 2 is incompatible ...Figure 10.3 Procedure used to isolate a specific elicitor of host resistance...Figure 10.4 (a) A cluster of hrp genes (A–F) from Xanthomonas axonopod...Figure 10.5 Diagrammatic representation of the hypersensitive response and p...Figure 10.6 A zig‐zag model of plant immunity. In the first phase, the prese...Figure 10.7 Diagrammatic representation of suppression of PAMP‐triggered imm...Figure 10.8 Delivery systems for cytoplasmic effectors. (a) Bacterial type I...Figure 10.9 Oomycete effector delivery. (a) 3D projection of a confocal micr...Figure 10.10 The classic gene‐for‐gene relationship (left), defined by the i...Figure 10.11 Simplified scheme of processes in PAMP‐triggered immunity. A co...Figure 10.12 Structure and cellular location of some proteins encoded by pla...Figure 10.13 Structure and activation of NLR immune receptors. (a) NLRs are ...Figure 10.14 Overview of the main steps in a plant virus life cycle. The vir...Figure 10.15 Resistance to a virus due to lack of a compatible host suscepti...

11 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 The evolution of fungicides. Main types available, origins, and ...Figure 11.2 Activities involved in the discovery and development of new agro...Figure 11.3 Effect of distribution on the efficiency of control of powdery m...Figure 11.4 Proposed mechanism of spray‐induced gene silencing (SIGS)....Figure 11.5 Some ways of applying pesticides to crops. (a) Tractor‐mounted b...Figure 11.6 Fungicide treatment timings on winter wheat in the UK. GS + numb...Figure 11.7 The dynamics of resistance development to fungicides. Discrete v...Figure 11.8 Mechanisms of resistance to single‐site fungicides. 1. Alteratio...Figure 11.9 Components of resistance management.Figure 11.10 A risk matrix for estimating the likelihood of fungicide resist...Figure 11.11 Courgette infected with gray mold Botrytis cinerea. This versat...Figure 11.12 Quantification of fungicide resistance in ascospores of Mycosph...

12 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 Selection for disease resistance in a population of plants. Nega...Figure 12.2 Marker‐assisted selection for resistance to a soil‐borne mosaic ...Figure 12.3 Flowchart for genomics‐assisted plant breeding.Figure 12.4 The boom and bust cycle of crop resistance. Note that a similar ...Figure 12.5 Annual changes in virulence frequencies (a) in yellow rust (Pucc...Figure 12.6 Evolution of virulence in the yellow rust (Puccinia graminis) po...Figure 12.7 Vertical and horizontal resistance compared. A cultivar with a s...Figure 12.8 Options for the use and deployment of R genes in crops. Major ge...Figure 12.9 Amounts of foliar infection by three pathogens of barley on thre...Figure 12.10 Rate of disease development of frog‐eye of tobacco, a leaf spot...Figure 12.11 Control of potato late blight (Phytophthora infestans) in field...Figure 12.12 Aerial view of field trial of transgenic papaya resistant to pa...

13 Chapter 13Figure 13.1 Effect of sowing date on the incidence of barley yellow dwarf vi...Figure 13.2 Effect of rotation on the yield of two pea cultivars.Figure 13.3 Relationship between inoculum density of Thielaviopsis basicola ...Figure 13.4 Effects of soil solarization and fumigation on (a) numbers of pr...Figure 13.5 Effect of soil solarization on the disease progress curves of ga...Figure 13.6 Severity of take‐all disease in continuous winter wheat crops at...Figure 13.7 Some compounds produced by bacterial antagonists which play a ro...Figure 13.8 Damage caused to conifer timber due to infection by butt rot, He...Figure 13.9 Protection of pea seedlings against preemergence damping‐off cau...Figure 13.10 Control of Rhizoctonia rot of tomatoes in the field by sprays o...Figure 13.11 Modes of action of biocontrol agents.Figure 13.12 An example of mycoparasitism. Infection of the grapevine downy ...Figure 13.13 Severity of angular leaf spot, caused by the bacterium Pseudomo...

14 Chapter 14Figure 14.1 Principles of integrated pest management, with sequential action...Figure 14.2 Extending the durability of cultivar resistance with fungicides....Figure 14.3 Avocado grove in southern California affected by Phytophthora ro...Figure 14.4 Strategies for integrated control of Phytophthora root rot of av...Figure 14.5 Effect of irrigation on severity of root rot of squash (Cucurbit...Figure 14.6 Digital agriculture and potential applications in crop protectio...

15 Part 1Figure 1 The disease triangle (a) incorporating the host–pathogen complex (b...

16 Part 2Figure 1 Simplified model of host–pathogen interactions involving fungi, oom...

17 Part 3Figure 1 The disease triangle showing options for intervention targeting the...Figure 2 Farming systems compared.Figure 3 Crop income versus control costs.