Читать книгу From Castle to Teahouse - John B. Kirby Jr - Страница 10

PART ONE

The Forms

ALTHOUGH the Momoyama period lasted for only forty -two years, from 1573 to 1615, the dynamic events that occurred at this time make it the most exciting and interesting era in Japanese history. This period saw the unification of the country and the invasion of Korea by Hideyoshi's forces. It was most profoundly influenced by the Europeans who had arrived in 1542 and introduced firearms and Christianity to Japan. Paralleling these major events was the development of architectural forms very different from those employed at any other time or place in the world. It was a period of prosperity, of commercial contact with Asia and Europe, and of national unity that provided Japans rulers with the power to build on a large and impressive scale.

The Momoyama period was dominated by three military leaders. Oda Nobunaga (1534-82) began the cycle by bringing a large part of the country under his power. His Azuchi Castle on the shores of Lake Biwa introduced advanced military architecture combined with palatial living quarters on a large and lavish scale. Nobunaga was assassinated in 1582 and was succeeded by Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536-98). Hideyoshi is probably Japans favorite military hero, and the fact that he was of peasant origin makes his rise to power all the more amazing. Hideyoshi died in 1598 while his troops were still attempting unsuccessfully to subjugate Korea. His Fushimi Castle, which was later called Momoyama Castle, gave its name to this period of history.

The third great leader was Tokugawa leyasu (1542-1616), who controlled the country after Hideyoshi's death, although his position was challenged until the death of Hideyoshi's son, Hideyori, in the final siege of Osaka Castle in 1615. leyasu was the first of a long line of Tokugawa shoguns (military rulers) who remained in power until 1868.

Because of unstable military conditions, castles played an important part in the architecture of the Momoyama period. However, within the castles other forms of architecture developed. The large-sized fortifications demanded equally large buildings within the castle compounds. For the castle owner, huge buildings in the shoin style served this purpose, and smaller structures in the same style were utilized for nobles and generals. In this period the tea ceremony, which had previously been introduced from China, became popular with people of all social classes. Sen no Rikyu, Japans greatest tea master, was instrumental in the development of an architectural style devoted solely to the tea ceremony, and the forms of the teahouse set a new architectural mode called sukiya. Hideyoshi patronized the tea ceremony and often retired from his huge elaborate buildings to the quiet simplicity of the small teahouses located within the walls of his castle.

Before examining the existing examples of Momoyama architecture, it is necessary to become familiar with the principal forms of castle, shoin, and sukiya architecture, which are discussed in the succeeding chapters.

I

The Castle

THE NEED for protection against aggression has been a problem for men of all countries. In Japan, from the beginning of recorded history there has been mention of primitive fortifications designed to lessen vulnerability to enemy attacks. Earth, stone, and wooden walls; holes, ditches, moats, and natural barriers were the principal forms employed from early times. The fortified residence is probably the forerunner of the castle. In areas where there were large military organizations, the residences of the leaders and their supporting troops had to be strongly protected. In the two centuries preceding the rise of Nobunaga, central Japan was divided and ruled by numbers of warlords. The struggles among them brought about the further development of military architecture through the construction of larger fortresses capable of withstanding sieges by a greater number of men.

As Nobunaga gained control of large sections of the country, it became possible for him to build a castle of appreciable size and complexity. Such castles, of ever-increasing strength, continued to be built throughout the Momoyama period, and it was not until the country became completely unified and peaceful under the Tokugawas that the importance of the castle began to decline.

There are three distinct castle types, classified according to their topographic location: the sanjo or castle located at the summit of a small mountain; the hirajo, located on a plain; and the hirasanjo, located partly on a mountain and partly on a plain. The sites chosen for castles were strategic positions, often close to the sea or rivers in order to facilitate shipping and at the same time provide protection. The advantages of the mountain castle were that it gave a view of the surrounding area for reconnaissance, that it was relatively inaccessible to attackers, and that it was more likely to survive earthquakes, which are less destructive on the heights than on the plains. The disadvantages were the difficulty of building, the inconvenience of location, the problem of digging wells, and the vulnerability to typhoon winds. The castle on the plain, however, had the disadvantage of being subject to inundation. Takamatsu Castle, for example, owed its impregnability to the surrounding water until Hideyoshi used this very factor to destroy it. A large dike was raised, and the river was diverted into the moat. When the rainy season started, Takamatsu Castle was flooded and fell to Hideyoshi's forces. The combination of the castle on the mountain and the plain was most often employed in the Momoyama period since it combined the advantages of the other types.

1. Main and Subsidiary Towers (Tenshukaku and Shotenshu). The main tower, the highest and largest building of the castle, was used for observation and as a command post for military activities.

Himeji Castle

2. Moat (Hori). In Japan, as elsewhere in the world, moats played an important defensive role in military architecture.

Osaka Castle

3. Rampart across the Moat (Dobashi). Since the dobashi were guarded by gate towers, attacking forces using them were vulnerable to heavy fire.

Nijo Castle

4. Corner Tower (Sumi-yagura). This type of tower, usually of two or three stories, was designed primarily for observation and for defense of corner sections.

Osaka Castle

5. Wall Building (Tamon). The tamon, whose outer side served as part of the castle wall, was used for storage and was entered from the inner side.

Himeji Castle

6. Wall Openings for Weapons (Sama). Openings in the castle walls served for firing upon the enemy, the shape of the aperture varying with the weapon used.

Himeji Castle

7. Tower Gate (Watariyagura). This combination gate and tower provided an enclosed passage above the gate for crossing from one compound to another or firing upon the enemy.

Himeji Castle

8. Gables: Triangular (Chi-dori-hafu) and Curved (Kara-hafu). A combination of these two gable types breaks up the mass of the large castle towers.

Wakayama Castle

9. Dolphin Roof Ornaments (Shachi). Tile or metal roof ornaments of this type were supposed to guard against evil.

Osaka Castle

10. Trap Doors for Dropping Stones (Ishiotoshi). This device served to protect vulnerable corner sections against enemy forces trying to climb the walls.

Wakayama Castle

11. Windows: Vertical Slat Type (Renjimado) and Bell-shaped (Katomado). Windows of this type provided sufficient ventilation without sacrificing cover.

Himeji Castle

The plan of the fortress consisted of a number of fortified compounds. Within an individual compound there were three types of buildings: those used for combat, residence, and storage. A castle plan was made up of concentric compounds isolated from each other by ramparts, moats, or walls. The central compound contained the main tower and the residences of the most important inhabitants, while the outer ones made up the defensive positions. The magazine was usually located in the second compound. The number and the design of the compounds varied, but there were usually three to five. Round forms were seldom used because they were easier to attack than to defend. In the castle on the plain and mountain, the main compound was set on the elevation. The terrain of the castle on the plain was broken up by moats filled with water or by a river or a lake.

The compounds or courts of a castle had the general name of kuruwa. The main compound was called the hommaru; the second, the ni no maru; and the third, the san no maru. In larger castles there were also outer courts. When the plan was irregular, the compounds were given the names of compass directions, people, or significant features. The compounds were located so that if any line of defense was captured, it could be recovered from another line. The courts were connected in labyrinth fashion to make total capture difficult.

The first procedure in building a castle was to lay out ropes on the site marking off the significant features of the plan. This preliminary was known as nawabari or marking with ropes. Intricate scaffolding was used in the construction of the castle buildings and walls. Ramps supported by scaffolding were used to transport building materials to the highest sections of the castle towers. Even today the Japanese employ similar methods in the construction of their tall buildings. No nails are used in this scaffolding; the poles are merely tied together with rope.

The building of castles employed many workmen of all sorts, and the protection afforded by the castles, together with the activity centering about them, led to the development of many thriving cities. Tokyo, Osaka, and Nagoya, for example, owe their importance originally to the construction of castles.

For protecting the approaches to a castle, three types of excavation were used: areas filled with water, wide ditches, and tracts of mud or swamp. Of these, the water-filled moat or hori afforded the best guarantee against penetration. There were two basic types of moat profile: the U shape, in which the walls on both sides met and supported each other, and the box shape, in which the bottom was flat and the walls were independent of each other. Earthen ramparts called dobashi were placed across the moat at points where attackers attempting to cross them would be most vulnerable. Wooden bridges were also used to span moats, and sometimes a combination of rampart and bridge was employed. The largest and most heavily fortified moat surrounded the main compound.

The stone walls so characteristic of the Japanese castle were built on a foundation of earth covered with small stones over which were placed the larger surface stones. Except at the corners, which were fashioned of stone slabs arranged much like the corner of a brick wall, the stones were of no uniform size or pattern. Generally, however, they were wedge-shaped and were placed with the smaller end of the wedge at the surface and the larger on the inside. This arrangement held them locked in position by their own weight and made them resistant to earthquakes. It also necessitated giving the wall a curve, and records show that this was geometrically determined. The basic earthen wall was known as a doi and the finished wall of stone as an ishigaki. Since no mortar was used to hold the stones in place, free drainage of water was permitted. Nevertheless, openings for drainage were used, although they were kept small so as not to be of advantage to the enemy.

The main gate to the outside of a castle, called the otemon, was one of the strongest of the castle gates and was heavily protected. On the opposite side of the castle was the karamete or rear gate, through which prisoners were usually taken in and which was sometimes used by the defenders as a point of exit for an attack on the enemy.

The masugata was a type of double gate which proved to be very effective and was extensively used in castle architecture. It consisted of two sets of gates with a fixed enclosure between. The secondary door was situated at right angles to the first. Masu is the name for a square measuring vessel in Japanese. The advantages of the "measuring gate" were many: the enemy was not able to view the interior of the castle; men could enter or leave without having both gates open at the same time; attackers who gained entrance through the main gate were extremely vulnerable to fire while trying to enter the secondary gate; leaders could also inspect their men in this quarter. The space was fixed by Hideyoshi so that it would hold 240 men or 40 mounted cavaliers.

Strategic gates were constructed of large timbers often protected with plating of copper or iron. These important military points were always guarded by towers from which the enemy could be fired upon.

Castle towers, generically known as yagura, derived their specific names from their position or use. Corner towers, for example, were called sumiyagura. In exterior appearance they were structures of two or three stories, but the interior was divided into many levels, the topmost of these being used for observation. Since corners hampered lateral observation and provided cover for enemies, it was important that these sectors be protected.

The tamon, a long, low structure integrated into the castle wall, was ordinarily used for storage. On the inner side, it had doors leading to the castle compounds; on the outer, openings from which the enemy could be fired upon. Such structures were often built with a gate, and the combination was called a watariyagura. The arrangement provided a protected passageway directly above the gate, convenient both for crossing from one part of the castle compound to another and for shooting down upon hostile invaders. This type of tower-gate was frequently constructed as the inner part of a "measuring gate." Other towers were used for observation, for confining prisoners, and for protecting water supplies. Towers also served for such interesting purposes as moon viewing and committing suicide.

12. Measuring Gate (Masugata). This arrangement of two gates with an enclosure between provided a double line of defense.

All towers, gate structures, and upper walls were furnished with openings for firing upon attacking forces. These openings, known under the general name of sama, were of such specific types as yasama for arrows, tepposama for guns, and (although rarely) taihosama for cannons. The holes provided for arrows were rectangular, while those for guns were circular, triangular, or square. At the end of the Tokugawa period, when the use of firearms had become common, it was necessary to have three openings for guns to every one for bows and arrows.

The tops of walls not protected by other structures were usually occupied by palisades behind which trees were planted in the hope of stopping projectiles, as a means of camouflage, and as a device for concealing activities within the castle. Pine trees were most abundantly represented, since they provided cover throughout the year. Bamboo was grown for arrows and oaks for the shafts of spears.

The main structure or tower of a castle is called the tenshu-kaku. One translation of this is "guardian of the sky." We can trace the development of the main tower back to the early wooden towers used for observation. As military forces increased in number, the tower became larger and stronger and eventually came to house the military leader. With the introduction of the Tanegashima or matchlock gun by the Portuguese in 1542, it became necessary to build much stronger towers and to increase the size relative to the ever-increasing range of the gun. Cannons were also introduced late in the 16th century but were seldom used before the country was united under the Tokugawas. After the imposition of Tokugawa rule, there was no longer any occasion for their use.

To achieve elevation and to protect the main tower from fires set by enemy invaders, the rectangular base was built of stone. The supporting beams of the tower rested upon large stones on top of this base or in a cellar within the base. This constituted a departure from many other large examples of Japanese or Chinese architecture in which the beams were sunk in the ground. These bottom posts extended through several floors to a platform which supported the beams for the higher floors. Similar platforms added different levels around the perimeter of the structure. There were usually one or two extremely long posts which might extend from the bottom to the top of the tower for the purpose of giving stability to the different platforms. This structural device, however, should not be compared with the central beam of the pagoda, which is sunk into the ground and is primarily for support. Curved beams were used freely in the framework.

The room at the top of the main tower was often the most luxurious in the castle. It was floored with tatami mats and served as the post of the castle lord in time of siege. Because it functioned as an observation point, it was largely open on all four sides and was thus well lighted, well ventilated, and relatively comfortable. At the beginning of the Momoyama period, this observation floor jutted out from the tower roof, but in later castles it was contained within the gradual tapering of the tower outline. It was often surrounded by a balcony with a wooden railing and sometimes adorned with a bell-shaped window called a katomado. The principal window style in most castles was of the renji type, which consisted of vertical slats in a rectangular frame. This type of window provided good ventilation for the buildings, furnished sufficient protective cover, and afforded openings from which fire could be directed upon the enemy.

The covering for all walls except those made of stone was a type of plaster. Up to the time of Hideyoshi, the exterior walls were painted with a compound whose chief ingredient was persimmon juice. This served both as an insect repellent and as a protection against weathering. A later development was the addition of a lime covering that gave greater protection against fire and offered more resistance to projectiles. The Tokugawas used a tilelike covering of fired earth.

The walls, towers, and gates were usually topped with rows of alternately inverted, semicircular, overlapping tiles, the row at the outer edge consisting of round tiles bearing the crest of the castle owner. A lime mortar made the joints waterproof, gave resistance to wind, and protected the roof against projectiles. The roofs of the main tower and other castle buildings were usually surmounted at the ridge by pairs of mythical dolphins called shachi, the male occupying one end and the female the other. These figures, made of tile or metal and sometimes gilded, were considered as guardians against evil spirits.

Gables of several types decorated the exterior of the main tower. They included the chidori-hafu, resembling a triangle with slightly curving roofs, and the kara-hafu, a curved Chinese-style gable also extensively used in the shoin architecture of this period. The number of gables on the outside, however, was not indicative of the number of floors inside, which usually varied between three and seven, with the exception that no towers were built with four floors. The reason for this exception is a superstition: in spoken Japanese the word for four (shi) is the same as the word for death.

Chutelike openings called ishiotoshi—actually trap doors for dropping stones on the enemy—protected the corners of many of the main towers and other strategic points. Another defensive device consisted of long poles with pails at the ends for pouring boiling water on the attacking forces.

The main towers of the larger castles were often surrounded by subsidiary towers called shotenshu. In some cases these lesser towers were connected to the main towers; in others, they were independent structures. Underground passages were sometimes constructed from the shotenshu to facilitate escape or the starting of counteroffensives.

The nonmilitary structures within the castle compounds were usually in the shoin or the sukiya style of architecture.

2 The Shoin Mansion

THE shinden style employed for the mansions of court nobles in the Heian period (794—1185) was the first Japanese architectural expression in dwellings of major size. Residences in this style consisted of buildings connected by covered passages which surrounded a garden with a meandering brook. These houses were designed for luxurious living, and the brook was considered a necessity as an ideal place for composing poetry.

It was no wonder that the court nobles, who spent their time in ceremony, in wearing handsome costumes, and in writing poetry, were to lose political power to the military class. As a consequence, in the 13th century a new style of architecture developed to meet the needs of the warrior class. The buke style of dwelling which housed the warriors was surrounded by walls with large gates; the galleries of the shinden style disappeared.

Shoin architecture originated in the shinden style and embraced the buke form. The shoin style adopted many of its forms from the Zen sect of Buddhism. The chapel of a Zen monastery differed from that of other sects in that it was a place for living and study rather than for worship. It contained a desk or shoin and a recessed altar usually with a statue of Bodhidharma, the founder of the sect. Often a small window was located above the shoin to provide light. This room came to be called the shoin, and the use of its features gave the name to the new style of architecture: shoin-zukuri or shoin style. The altar of the Zen room became a recess in which pictures were hung, and the shoin simply became a platform with a window above it. The series of shelves built into the wall at one time served to store papers and books.

13. Roof Types: Irimoya (left), Kirizuma (center), and Shichu (right).

The shoin style was adopted by the samurai and nobles rather than by the commoners, who built simpler houses. The style developed during the Ashikaga period (1393—1573), reached its height in the Momoyama period, and degenerated at the beginning of the Tokugawa period (1615—1868). Early traces of the shoin style can be seen in the top floors of the Golden Pavilion (Kinkaku) of the Rokuon-ji, originally built in 1397, and the Silver Pavilion (Ginkaku) of the Jisho-ji, which dates from 1488. The former was almost totally destroyed in 1950 in a fire set by an obsessed student monk but has since been restored. The top floors of both buildings have bell-shaped windows, and the Silver Pavilion displays a shelf arrangement similar to that of the shoin.

The plan of a shoin building was rectangular and called for three or more rooms completely surrounded by a corridor or porch. This porch could be open to the outside or enclosed by sliding doors or shutters. When there was more than one large shoin building, the structures were usually connected by covered corridors which joined the buildings at the corners so as not to sacrifice the light at the sides.

The roofs of shoin buildings were constructed of tile or bark. Three types of roof shape were used: the gabled roof or kirizuma, the hipped ridge roof or shichu, and the hipped and gabled roof or irimoya. The gables were usually ornamented with carvings and metal decorations.

The entrance to a shoin building was through a genkan or entrance porch of sufficient size for a person being carried in a palanquin to be brought under the shelter of the roof. This entrance porch was also the place where rough footwear for outdoor use was changed for soft slippers suitable for walking on the tatami mats and polished wooden floors.

14. Entrance Porch (Genkan). The genkan was of sufficient size to permit palanquins to discharge their passengers under the shelter of the roof.

Kangaku-in

15. Tokonoma. This type of alcove with a raised base probably developed as a stationary wall on which to hang paintings.

Konchi-in

16. Arrangement of Shelves (Chigaidana). Shelves of differing height form the chigaidana, above which a cabinet with sliding doors is often placed.

Emman-in

17. Window-and-Shelf Alcove (Tsukeshoin). This type of alcove, from which shoin architecture derives its name, originated as a writing desk.

Emman-in