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Research can exist outside of our knowledge of ontology and epistemology. Don't fret too much over these complex ideas. As you might end up debating whether it is positivist or relativist to decide how to count the number of angels you can get on a pinhead …

TABLE 1.1 Ontology, epistemology. Theoretical perspective, methodology, and methods.

Source: Adapted from Patel (2015).

Research Paradigm	Ontology	Epistemology	Theoretical Perspective	Methodology	Methods
Positivist	There is a single reality	Reality can be measured using the best scientific methods	Positivism	Quantitative methods – experimental and observational hypothetico‐deductive	Sampling, measuring Numbers and statistics
Interpretivist	No single reality. Reality depends on the researcher's location in time and society	Everything is subject to interpretation. We need to discover how people experience their worlds	Interpretivism	Qualitative methods: phenomenology ethnography grounded theory Etc. Hypothetico‐inductive	Participant observation Interviews Focus groups Etc.
Pragmatism	Reality is constantly being re‐negotiated and interpreted	You can choose the best method for solving the problem	Pragmatism	Mixed methods	Any methods which will answer the question

For further reading, if you have the mental stamina to be confused further, you might look at: Devaux and Lamanna (2009), Griswold (2001), Heidegger (1971), Sturm (2011), Descartes (1985), and Haack (1993).