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Introduction
Оглавление....and I shall give to thee tables of stone, and the law, and commandments, which I have written, that thou teach them….
From within a cloud or a burning bush, from the midst of the Holy of Holies in the Temple in Jerusalem or above the summit of Mount Sinai in the desert, to prophets, priests, and patriarchs alike, YAHWEH, the Great "I AM", "the God of revelation and grace", spoke to His people in words they could all understand.
Moses came down from Mt. Sinai with the ten commandments, written in stone by the finger of God, in a language the entire nation of Israel could read.
David composed his poems of praise and petition, promises and pleadings, to the Lord God of hosts, in the everyday language of his people.
Solomon penned his proverbs of wise fatherly counsel, and his songs of passionate love, in Hebrew, the language of many of his sons, and at least some of his lovers….
….then Jesus spake to the people….
By the sea or on a hilltop, in the Temple or at the well, to individuals and to multitudes alike, when Jesus walked the earth, he spoke to people in words they could understand.
Paul's actual letters were written in Greek, the everyday language of those to whom they were sent. Thirty years later, the same would be true of the original Gospels.
But in England 2300 years after David and Solomon, and 1300 years after Jesus and Paul, the Word of God was written almost exclusively in Latin1, an unknown language to 99% of that society. Indeed, Latin was only understood by some of the clergy, some of the well-off, and the few who were university-educated. This did not trouble the Church princes, who long before had transformed the "Divine Commission" - to preach the Word and to save souls - into the more temporal undertaking of the all-consuming drive to wield authority over every aspect of life, and in the process, to accumulate ever-greater wealth.
John Wycliffe, an Oxford University professor and theologian, was one of those few who had read the Latin Bible. Though a scholar living a life of privilege, he nevertheless felt a strong empathy for the poor and the uneducated, those multitudes in feudal servitude whose lives were "nasty, brutish, and short". He challenged the princes of the Church to face their hypocrisy and widespread corruption - and to repent. He railed that the Church was no longer worthy to be The Keeper of the Word of Truth. And he proposed a truly revolutionary idea:
"The Scriptures," Wycliffe stated, "are the property of the people, and one which no party should be allowed to wrest from them. Christ and his apostles converted much people by uncovering of Scripture, and this in the tongue which was most known to them. Why then may not the modern disciples of Christ gather up the fragments of the same bread? The faith of Christ ought therefore to be recounted to the people in both languages, Latin and English."
Indeed, John Wycliffe earnestly believed that all Scripture should be available to all of the people all of the time in their native tongue.
He believed that with the Word of God literally in hand, each individual could have a personal relationship with God, and work out his or her own salvation, with no need for any human or institutional intermediary.
And so John Wycliffe and his followers, most notably John Purvey, his secretary and close friend, and for a limited time, Nicholas Hereford2, translated Jerome's Vulgate, the "Latin Bible", into the first English Bible. (They also utilized original language texts; more on this below.) Their literal, respectful translation was hand-printed around 1382. Historians refer to this as the "Early Version" of the "Wycliffe Bible".
The Church princes, long before having anointed themselves as sole arbitrator (indeed "soul" arbitrator!) between God and man, condemned this monumental achievement as heretical - and worse:
"This pestilent and wretched John Wycliffe, that son of the old serpent... endeavour[ing] by every means to attack the very faith and sacred doctrine of Holy Church, translated from Latin into English the Gospel, [indeed all of the Scriptures,] that Christ gave to the clergy and doctors of the Church. So that by his means it has become vulgar and more open to laymen and women who can read than it usually is to quite learned clergy of good intelligence. And so the pearl of the Gospel, [indeed of the Scriptures in toto,] is scattered abroad and trodden underfoot by swine."
(Church Chronicle, 1395)
The Church princes decreed that Wycliffe be removed from his professorship at Oxford, and it was done. Two years later, his health broken, he died.
In the decade following John Wycliffe's death, his friend John Purvey revised their Bible. The complete text, including Purvey's "Great Prologue", appeared by 1395. But portions of his revision, in particular the Gospels and other books of the New Testament, were in circulation as early as 1388.
Historians refer to this as the "Later Version" of the "Wycliffe Bible". This vernacular version retained most of the theological insight and poetry of language found in the earlier, more literal effort. But it was easier to read and understand, and quickly gained a grateful and loyal following. Each copy had to be hand-printed (Gutenberg's printing press would not be invented for more than fifty years), but this did not deter widespread distribution. The book you now hold in your hands is that "Wycliffe Bible" (with modern spelling).
For his efforts, the Church princes ordered John Purvey arrested and delivered to the dungeon. He would not see freedom again until he recanted of his "sin" - writing the English Bible. His spirit ultimately broken, he eventually did recant. Upon release, he was watched, hounded at every step, the Church princes determined that he would tow the party line. His life made a living hell, the co-author of the first English Bible disappeared into obscurity and died unknown.
But the fury of the Church princes was unrelenting. Edicts flew. John Wycliffe's bones were dug up - and burned. Wycliffe's writings were gathered up - and burned. All unauthorized Bibles - that is, all those in the English language - were banned. All confiscated copies were burned. Those who copied out these Bibles were imprisoned. Those who distributed these Bibles were imprisoned. Those who owned an English Bible, or, as has been documented, "traded a cart-load of hay for but a few pages of the Gospel", were imprisoned. And those faithful souls who refused to "repent" the "evil" that they had committed, were burned at the stake, the "noxious" books that they had penned, or even had merely owned, hung about their necks to be consumed by the same flames. In all, thousands were imprisoned, and many hundreds executed. Merry olde England was engulfed in a reign of terror. All because of an English Bible. This Bible.
But the spark that John Wycliffe, John Purvey, and their followers had ignited could not, would not, be extinguished. The Word of Truth was copied, again, and again, and again. The Word of Truth was shared, from hand, to hand, to hand. The Word of Truth was spoken, and read, and heard by the common people in their own language for the first time in over 1000 years. At long last, the Word of God had been returned to simple folk who were willing to lose everything to gain all.
And so the pearl of the Scriptures was spread abroad and planted in their hearts by the servants of God….
216 years after Purvey's revision appeared, somewhat less than a century after Martin Luther proclaimed his theses (thereby sparking the Protestant Reformation), and Henry VIII proclaimed his divorce (thereby creating the Church of England), what would become the most famous, enduring, beloved, and revered translation of the Bible, the "Authorized" or "King James Version" (KJV), was published in 1611.
In their preface, "The Translators to the Reader", in the 1st edition of the KJV, the 54 translators detail many sources utilized and arduous efforts undertaken to achieve their supreme accomplishment. Interestingly enough, they make scant mention of even the existence of earlier, unnamed English versions. And they make no specific reference to the work of John Wycliffe and John Purvey (or even William Tyndale). It is not my desire or intention here to speculate on the political and ecclesiastical reasons for this omission, simply to state its fact.
From 1611 until today, historians of the English Bible have uniformly followed the lead of the KJV translators, and have ignored, dismissed, or denigrated John Wycliffe's and John Purvey's contributions to, and influences upon, that ultimate translation, the KJV. To wit:
"The Bible which permeated the minds of later generations shows no direct descent from the Wycliffite versions; at most a few phrases from the later version seem to have found their way into the Tudor translations….Tyndale's return to the original languages meant that translations based on the intermediate Latin of the Vulgate would soon be out of date."
(Cambridge History of the Bible, Vol. 2, p. 414.)
When you finish reading this book, you may reach a different conclusion.
Regarding Wycliffe's Bible
Wycliffe's Bible is comprised of Wycliffe's Old Testament, which is the Old Testament found in extant copies of the "Later Version" of the "Wycliffe Bible", with modern spelling, and Wycliffe's New Testament, which is the New Testament found in extant copies of the "Later Version" of the "Wycliffe Bible", with modern spelling. For 99.9% of Wycliffe's Bible, the word order, verb forms, words in italics, and punctuation are as they appear in the "Later Version". In addition, words and phrases found only in the "Early Version" are presented within square brackets, "[ ]", to provide more examples of John Wycliffe's and John Purvey's groundbreaking scholarship, as well as to aid comprehension and improve passage flow. (Literally thousands of "Early Version" verses were transcribed, but limited space meant most could not be printed in this book. See the online files, or the files on the Wycliffe's Bible CD, for these significant and interesting textual variations.)
Because their very lives were at risk, and personal glory was of no consequence to either man, neither Wycliffe nor Purvey signed any extant copy of either version, attesting to authorship. This omission has allowed some historians to debate the matter. Wycliffe's Bible is unambiguously credited: "Translated by John Wycliffe and John Purvey". While authorship of a particular chapter or verse can be argued by those concerned with such matters, there is absolutely no doubt about the essential role that each of these men played in the momentous effort to bring the English Bible to the English people.
Middle English
The "Wycliffe Bible" was written in Middle English in the last three decades of the 14th century. "Middle English" is the designation of language spoken and written in England between 1150 and 1450. The year 1300 is used to divide the period into "Early Middle English" and "Late Middle English". During the time of "Late Middle English", there were 5 regional dialects in England (with a sixth dialect eventually developing in London). Examples of at least three dialects are found in the "Later Version" of the "Wycliffe Bible".
What does one encounter reading the "Wycliffe Bible"? An alphabet with a widely used 27th letter, "3", and a 28th letter, "p", that already was frequently being replaced with "th" (even within the same sentence). A myriad of words which today are either obsolete ("anentis": with), archaic ("culver": dove), or at best, strangely-spelled precursors to our modern words ("vpsedoun": upside-down). Spelling and verb forms that are not standardized, in part because they were phonetic to different dialects. For example, the word "saw" is spelled a dozen different ways (even differently within the same sentence), and differently for singular and plural nouns (similarly, the word "say"); "have take" and "have taken" are found in the same sentence, as are "had know" and "had known"; and so forth. Prepositions and pronouns that often seem misplaced and incorrectly used: "at", "for", "in", "of", "on", "there", "to", "what", and "which" again and again seem wrongly situated; "themself" and "themselves" are found in the same sentence, as are "youself" and "yourselves"; and so forth. Capitalization, punctuation, and other grammatical conventions that are rudimentary by today's standards, and vary greatly from sentence to sentence. For example, the past tense of a verb was made by adding nothing to the present tense, or an "e", "en", "ed", "ede", "id", "ide", or still other suffixes. In short, one encounters formidable obstacles to being able to understand (what will become) a single verse of Scripture.
And so the need for Wycliffe's Bible. Wycliffe's Bible is the "Later Version" of the "Wycliffe Bible" (often referred to here as the WB), with its irregular spelling deciphered, the verb forms made consistent, and numerous grammatical variations standardized. Wycliffe's Bible is the key that unlocks the amazing secrets found within the WB.
Three types of words: obsolete, archaic, and precursors
As stated above, with the spelling modernized, three types of words are found in the "Wycliffe Bible": obsolete ("dead words", unknown and unused for centuries); archaic ("old-fashioned words", now chiefly used poetically); and, the vast majority, "precursors", which are strangely-spelled forerunners of words that we use today. To understand the text, each group of words must be dealt with in a particular way.
Obsolete Words
Perhaps 2% of the words in the "Later Version" of the Wycliffe Old Testament (WOT) are "dead" words that are not presently used, or found in current dictionaries. This percentage is significantly lower than the estimated 5% of obsolete words found in the "Later Version" of the Wycliffe New Testament (WNT). It is amazing how in little more than a decade, the time taken to revise the "Early Version" of the "Wycliffe Bible", the language so quickly evolved, and how much more modern the lexicon of the "Wycliffe Bible" became, particularly its Old Testament. But to understand the text, these obsolete words must be replaced.
Fortunately for our purposes, the "Later Version" of the "Wycliffe Bible" was created at an exciting time of transition, just as the nascent language was beginning to blossom into the English that we know today. Many modern equivalents for words that we consider "dead" are found in the text itself, already in use alongside their soon-to-be-discarded doublets. Examples of "in-house" replacement words include: again, alley, ascend, ashamed, basket, besides, call, choir, desire, diminish, disturb, follow, hair shirt, harm, hinge, knew, know, mad, pasture, path, praise, reckon, repent, restore, rider, shame/d, snare, strong hold, strong vengeance, stumble, trap, trouble, uncle, weigh (both as a balance or scales and as the verb), weight, with, and still other words (including "that" and "those", which are replacements for "thilke"). So more than half of the obsolete or "dead" words in the "Later Version" of the WB were replaced with words already there in the text. Somewhat surprisingly, a number of the equivalent modern words were found only in the "Early Version" of the "Wycliffe Bible". In these instances, which are not infrequent, it is the "Later Version" that utilizes only the older, soon-to-be defunct, term.
For the relatively few remaining obsolete words, reference works were consulted, and appropriate replacement words were chosen and utilized. Older words, in use as close as possible to the time of the "Wycliffe Bible", were favored over more recent words. When selecting replacements not already found in the text, words were chosen, as often as possible, that were different from those used in the KJV, so as not to artificially produce similar phraseology. But sometimes the only appropriate replacement word was that which the KJV also used.
When an obsolete word was replaced, the effort was made to use the same replacement word as often as possible to reflect word usage found in the original text. However many words have more than one meaning, and different contexts at times required multiple renderings for an individual "dead" word. So "bire", usually rendered "rush", also became "force"; "covenable", usually rendered "suitable", also became "opportune"; "departe", usually rendered "part" ("to divide"), also became "separate"; "grutche", usually rendered "grumble", also became "grudge"; "kyndli", usually rendered "of kind", or "by kind", also became "naturally"; "meyne", usually rendered "family", also became "household"; "out-takun", usually rendered "except", also became "besides"; "sclaundre", usually rendered "cause to stumble", also became "offend"; and "wilne", usually rendered "desire", also became "to delight in", or "to take pleasure in". Of these particular replacement words, only "except", "family", "naturally", and "separate" are not found in the original text.
In all, approximately 100 individual replacement words (and their various forms and tenses) were utilized for the Old Testament, and for the New Testament, those replacement words and 140 others. Some replacement words ("benumbed", "creaketh", "creditor", "mocked", "parched", "physician", "satisfy", and "wrenched") were used rarely; other replacement words ("ascend", "call", "except", "pour", and "promise") were used repeatedly.
Archaic Words
About 4% of the words used in the "Later Version" of the WOT and 10% of the words used in the "Later Version" of the WNT, are today considered "archaic", that is, not widely used, but still found in good, current dictionaries. Words in this category include: "anon" (at once), "comeling" (stranger or newcomer), "culver" (dove), "forsooth" ("for truth" and "but"), "knitches" (bundles), "livelode"/"lifelode" (livelihood), "quern" (hand-mill), "principat" (principality), "repromission" (promise), "soothly" (truly), "strand" (stream), "sweven" (dream), "trow" (to trust or to believe), "ween" (to suppose), and "youngling" (young person). Once understood, these words are valid and vital, and evoke the atmosphere and colour of the original text. Most archaic words have been retained. Sometimes the KJV follows the "Later Version" in the use of an archaic word - such as "anon" (at once), "baken" (baked), "holden" (held), "holpen" (helped), "leasing" (lying), "letting" (hindering!), "washen" (washed), "wist" (knew), and "wot" (know) - and Wycliffe's Bible also follows the WB.
Significantly, and of great benefit for our purposes, many archaic words in the "Wycliffe Bible" have their own modern equivalents right there in the original text. So in Wycliffe's Bible, following the original text, you will find both "again-rising" and "resurrection"; "again-buying" and "redemption"; "alarge" and "enlarge"; "alure" and "lattice" (and "alley"); "anon" and "at once"; "araneid" and "spider"; "barnacle" and "bit" (part of a "bridle", which is also found); "cheer" and "face"; "close" and "enclose"; "comprehend" and "apprehend" (i.e., to physically catch, lay hold of, or to grasp); "darked" and "darkened"; "dure" and "endure"; "err" and "wander"; "flower" and "flourish"; "forgat" and "forgot"; "gat" and "begat"; "gender" and "engender"; "get" and "beget"; "gobbets" and "pieces"; "gotten" and "begotten"; "grave" and "engrave"; "gree" and "degree"; "grene" and "snare" (and "trap"); "half" and "hand" (and "side"); "harded" and "hardened"; "leasing" and "lying"; "leaveful" and "lawful"; "lessed" and "lessened"; "liquor" and "liquid"; "manyfold" and "manifold"; "marishes" and "marshes"; "maumet" and "idol"; "meed" and "reward"; "nurse" and "nourish"; "owe" and "ought"; "paddocks" and "frogs"; "painture" and "painting"; "plage" and "region"; "says" (and "serges") and "curtains"; "simulacra" and "idols"; "sop up" and "swallow"; "spelunk" and "cave" (and "den"); "strain" and "constrain"; "sweven" and "dream"; "thank" (past tense of "think") and "thought"; "tree" and "beam" (and "stick", and "timber", and "wood" as well); "venge" and "avenge"; "vinery" and "vineyard"; "virtue" and "strength" or "power" (and "host" as well); "volatiles" and "birds"; "waiter" (and "waker") and "watcher" (and "watchman"); "waking" and "watching"; "wem" and "spot"; and still more doublets of archaic and modern words. For definitions, see the Glossary at the back of the book.
Precursors
But the vast majority of words in the "Later Version" of the WOT, about 94%, and in the "Later Version" of the WNT, about 85%, are the direct precursors of words that we use today. Although these words are spelled differently from words that we know, once their spelling has been modernized, they can be understood - with the following caveats.
In Wycliffe's Bible, you will encounter familiar words in unfamiliar settings: "and" in place of "also"; "charity" in place of "love"; "clarity" and "clearness" in place of "glory"; "deem" in place of "judge"; "defoul" in place of "defile"; "doom" in place of "judgement"; "dread" in place of "fear"; "either" in place of "or"; "enhance" in place of "exalt"; "health" in place of "salvation" or "deliverance" (and also "victory"); "take" in place of "receive"; "wed" in place of "pledge"; and so forth. Consult a good dictionary. Even as currently defined, these words remain relevant in their particular context. Their use here breathes new life into familiar passages and brings fresh insight and illumination.
However, some words that we recognize have significantly changed definition in the intervening six centuries (in most cases, their meanings have become more specialized, less inclusive, than they were before). Reading the original text, these words sound jarring to our ears and appear out of place. Confusion would result if they were retained in Wycliffe's Bible. So different words were substituted, words whose definitions have remained constant over the centuries, are conducive to the context, and aid, rather than hinder, passage flow. Of vital importance, almost all of the substitution words used in Wycliffe's Bible were already present in the original text (some were previously noted above in the list of doublets of archaic and modern words); many are given as alternate renderings by the Wycliffe and Purvey themselves (either in italics or in another verse dealing with the same subject matter).
The "in-house" substitution words used include: arms (for "armours"); at once (for "anon", not the more modern "by and by"); basin (for "cup", and for "vial", as corrected in glosses citing the Hebrew text); beam (for "tree"); box tree (for "beech tree", as corrected in glosses citing the Hebrew text); cause to stumble (for "sclaundre"); cave (for "swallow" as a noun); chamber (for "treasury"); chiefs (for "corners"); curtains (for "tents"); denounce (for "defame"); depraved (for "shrewide"); destroy (for "lose"); destroyed (for "lost"); face (for "cheer"); feeble and frail (for "sick"); foreyard (for "hall"); half (for "middle"); hinder (for "let"!); hooks (for "heads" of pillars); host (for "strength"); hosts (for "virtues"); joined (for "applied"); knowing (for "cunning"); let go (for "leave" and for "left"); lookers (for "tooters"); loves (for "teats"); lie and lying (for "leasing"); mad (for "wood"); meek (for "debonair"); meekness (for "debonairness"); one (for "to" and for "toon"); only (for "properly"); own (for "proper"); pieces (for "plates"); pit (for "lake" and for "swallow" as a noun); posts (for "fronts" and for "trees"); remember (for "record"); remnant (for "relief"); send away (for "leave"); sent away (for "left"); servant (for "child"); servants (for "children"); species (for "spices"); spoon (for "mortar", as corrected in glosses citing the Hebrew text); stick (for "tree"); stranger or visitor (for "pilgrim"); strength or power (for "virtue"); strengthened (for "comforted"); strong hold (for "strength" and for "strengthening"); stumble (for "offend"); swallow (for "to sop up"); table (for "board"); tent (for "roof"); tents (for "castles"); timber (for "tree"); turn/ed again (for "convert" and "converted"/"return" and "returned"); vessel (for "gallon"); watch (for "wake"); watcher (for "waiter" and for "waker"); a weigh, that is, a balance or scales (for "a peis"); to weigh and weight (for "peise"); well (for "lake" and for "pit"); wild (for "wood"); wood (for "tree"); young (for "birds"); young man (for "child"); and young men (for "children"). All of these substitution words are frequently found in the original text. Ten other substitutions were used which are not found in the original text: boy (for "child"); cloak (for "cloth", the singular of "clothes"); consecrate/d (for "make sacred" and "made sacred", though "consecration" is found); drowned (for "drenched"); firm (for "sad"); naturally (for "kindly"); physician (for "leech"); pledge (for "wed"); and promise (for "behest").
This seems quite a list, about 70 individual substitution words in all. But in total, they were used about 500 times. That is, out of over 700,000 words in Wycliffe's Bible, less than 1/10th of 1% of them are substitution words. Many of these words were used as substitutions five times or less. So when you read any of these words (with the exception of the final ten), almost all of the time they are there in the original text. Substitution words were only used to aid comprehension and were kept to an absolute minimum.
Other Minor Modifications
To aid comprehension and readability, two separate words in the "Wycliffe Bible" are often joined together in Wycliffe's Bible. Examples include: "in+to", "to+day", "-+self", "-+selves", "no+thing", and a few others. Conversely, and for the same reasons of comprehension and readability, many unfamiliar compound nouns found in the WB are hyphenated in Wycliffe's Bible. For example, "a3enrisynge" became "again-rising" ("resurrection"), "a3enstondynge" became "against-standing" ("standing against" or "opposing"), "a3einseiyng" became "against-saying" ("contradicting"), etc. It can also be helpful to reverse the order of hyphenated words when reading them, so "again-rising" can be read "rising again", "against-stand" can be read "stand against", "against-said" can be read "said against", and so on.
Occasionally a prefix or suffix was added to a root word to aid comprehension: "ac" to "knowledge"; "al" to "together"; "be" to "gat", "get", and "loved"; "con" to "strained"; "di" to "minished"; "en" to "close", "compass", "dure", "during", "gender", and "grave"; "re" to "quite"; "sur" to "passingly" and "ly" to "most". These prefixes and the suffix are found in abundance in the original text, as are the words "altogether", "begat", "beget", "constrained", "diminished", "enclose", "endure", "enduring", "engender", and "engrave".
Inconsequential prepositions, conjunctions, and pronouns ("a", "the", "and", "selves", etc.) not found in particular "Later Version" phrases, but present in the same "Early Version" phrases, were occasionally added to the text of Wycliffe's Bible to aid comprehension and improve passage flow. They appear in square brackets, "[ ]". Such words were also added even when not found in the comparable "Early Version" verses; these inserts appear in parentheses, "( )".
Parentheses were also used to contain phrases and even entire verses which were re-ordered, re-punctuated, and, sometimes, re-worded, to aid comprehension and readability. Working with Hebrew and Latin sources, the translators produced a highly literal text that is often convoluted and confusing in English. So an effort was made to make better sense out of these passages by putting the available words (or, at times, different, but more accurate words,) into a more fluent order, with more appropriate punctuation. But this is only done with words that are found within parentheses. Such re-working always appears after the original unaltered text, and can easily be ignored, if so desired.
Punctuation overall follows the original text. Occasionally a comma was inserted to aid readability. For chapters of repetitive lists of names, numbers, places, or temple accoutrements (such as those found in Numbers, Ezra, Nehemiah, and 1st Chronicles), verses were made consistent with one another. To accomplish this, commas and semi-colons were sometimes interchanged. As well, in various Psalms, it seems that semi-colons were employed to aid in oral presentation (perhaps to indicate a significant pause for breath), for their usage does not follow grammar found elsewhere in the text. So sometimes commas were substituted here. The occasional interchange of commas and semi-colons in these books aids comprehension and improves passage flow, but does not alter the meaning of any verse.
To sum up: More than 98% of the words found in Wycliffe's Old Testament, and 95% of the words that you read in Wycliffe's New Testament, are modernized spellings of the original words found in the 14th century manuscript. Less than 2% of the words in the Old Testament, and less than 5% in the New Testament, are "replacement words", that is, appropriate words chosen to replace obsolete or "dead" words. Almost all of these replacements in the Old Testament - about 100 individual words along with their various forms and tenses - and about three-quarters of the replacements in the New Testament, are found in the original text. As well, about 500 times throughout all of Wycliffe's Bible (not even 1 word for each page of this book), a word more conducive to the context was substituted for another whose meaning had radically changed over the intervening 600 years. Almost all of the substitution words (about 70 in all) were taken from elsewhere in the original text.
Ultimately, each word in Wycliffe's Bible was selected for its fidelity to the original text, as well as its ability to aid comprehension and passage flow.
Use of the KJV
When transforming the "Later Version" of the "Wycliffe Bible" into Wycliffe's Bible, reference was made to the KJV in regard to verse number, book order, book names, and (most) proper names.
Verses are not found in either version of the "Wycliffe Bible". Each chapter consists of one unbroken block of text. There are not even paragraphs. In creating Wycliffe's Bible, the "Later Version" of the WB was defined, word by word. Then the KJV was placed alongside and used to divide each chapter into the traditional verses. (The English Bible was first divided into numbered verses in the middle of the 16th century, 60 years before the KJV was printed. The King James translators copied what was already established.) As the blocks were broken up, it became readily apparent that Wycliffe and Purvey had often written first what would appear two centuries later in the KJV. (This debt is particularly obvious in the New Testament.)
The sequence of the books of the Bible to which we are accustomed long pre-dates the KJV. It appeared in some Latin Bibles at least as early as the 5th century AD. (Those Bibles in turn were influenced by the order of the books in the Septuagint, the Old Greek version of the Hebrew Scriptures, from the 3rd century BC, which is our earliest complete translation of them, and the Old Latin Bibles as well.) The sequence was formally established in the accepted order at the time that the verse divisions were made (again, about 60 years before the KJV was printed). This is the same order found in the "Wycliffe Bible", which was written 150 years earlier, with one exception: "Deeds of (the) Apostles" (in some copies of both versions of the WB entitled "Actus Apostolorum", Latin for "Acts of the Apostles") is placed after Hebrews and before James. In Wycliffe's New Testament, "Deeds"/"Actus" is returned to its more familiar position between The Gospel of John and The Epistle of Paul to the Romans. In short, Wycliffe's Bible simply follows the WB order (but excludes the apocryphal books found intermittently throughout it).
The names of the books of the Old Testament have minor variations among the copies of the "Wycliffe Bible", but they are basically what is found in the KJV. Most are prefaced by the phrase, "The Book of...". The exceptions: 1st and 2nd Samuel are called 1st and 2nd Kings in the WOT (the same alternate names also found in early editions of the KJV); "our" 1st and 2nd Kings are called 3rd and 4th Kings in the WOT (again, the same alternate names also found in early editions of the KJV); 1st and 2nd Chronicles (named thus by Jerome) are called 1st and 2nd Paralipomena in the WOT (the name is taken from the Septuagint and means "things left over", referring to Samuel and Kings; however, it is a misnomer, for the Chronicles are distinct from the other historical books, focusing on God's intervention in history, and omitting Northern Kingdom annals); Nehemiah is called 2nd Ezra; the Song of Solomon is usually called the Song of Songs (as it is often named in Jewish and modern English Bibles); and Jeremiah is referred to as "Jeremy" in the titles of the book of his prophecies and the book of his lamentations. On the whole, book names in Wycliffe's Old Testament follow those found in the KJV.
As indicated, New Testament book names vary among copies of the "Wycliffe Bible". But overall, they are more basic, and less formal, than those found in the KJV. To wit: "The Gospel of Luke" rather than "The Gospel according to Saint Luke"; "The Epistle of Paul to the Colossians" rather than "The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Colossians"; and so forth. Wycliffe's New Testament follows the simplicity of the "Wycliffe Bible", rather than the more ecclesiastical KJV, in this regard. (For this combined version, book names have been simplified, i.e., "Numbers", "Esther", "Luke", "Romans", etc., as space is severely limited.)
To aid comprehension and also comparison with other translations, proper names in Wycliffe's Bible were generally made to conform to those in the KJV. However, surprisingly, the modern names of such countries as Africa, Greece, Libya, and Ethiopia are found in the WOT, where the KJV often uses their archaic and/or Hebrew names (respectively Put, Javan or Grecia, Lubim, and Cush), and they were not changed. As well, the WOT often shows its debt to the Septuagint by using the Greek names for such cities as Heliopolis, Memphis, Pelusium, Sidon, Tanis, and Thebes, instead of the Hebrew names which the KJV uses (respectively On, Noph, Sin, Zidon, Zoan, and No); these names were also not changed. A list of "Alternate Names of People and Places in Wycliffe's Old Testament" appears after the "Apocalypse" (Revelation), before the Glossary.
Infrequently, apparently confusing an object name with a proper name, a Hebrew word was not translated in the WOT, but simply transliterated (the KJV and other translations do translate these words). These transliterations were left as found in the original text of the WOT, with a translation following in parentheses. They are also defined in the Glossary.
Finally, the few times where a proper name in the "Wycliffe Bible" is distinctly different from its counterpart in the KJV, it was not changed in Wycliffe's Bible; however the more familiar name is given immediately afterward in parentheses.
Names of God are a special circumstance. God has many names and titles in the Wycliffe Old Testament, including "God", "Lord", "God Almighty", "Almighty God", "the Almighty", "the Lord of hosts" (sometimes written "the Lord of virtues"), "the Lord God of hosts" (sometimes written "the Lord God of virtues"), "the High", "the most High", "the Highest", "the alder-Highest", "the Holy", "my Maker", "the old of days", "creator", "the overcomer", and still others as well (including "king", which is also given as a title for the coming Messiah). In the WOT, the first seven titles in this list are always capitalized, the next six are infrequently capitalized, and the others are never capitalized. In Wycliffe's Old Testament, the capitalized titles were left as such, those in the second grouping ("the High", "the most High", "the Highest", "the alder-Highest", "the Holy", and "Maker") were consistently capitalized to aid comprehension, and the other remaining titles were also capitalized for the same reason. The KJV, and other translations, including Jewish Bibles, capitalize some, or even all, of these titles, but not in uniformity with one another.
Surprisingly, the words "christ", "christs", and "Christ" appear in the WOT. The English word "christ" is from the Greek word "christos" ("christus" in Latin), and means "the anointed (one)"; the transliterated Hebrew for the same word is the familiar "messiah". The word "christos" appears in the Septuagint (e.g., in Psalms 2:2 and Daniel 9:25). It was borrowed from there by the writers of the Greek New Testament in the 1st century AD to refer specifically and only to Jesus Christ (and so it is always capitalized). But in the WOT, "christ" uncapitalized can refer to King Saul, the Persian king Cyrus, David in particular, the patriarchs in general (here the word "christs" is used), and others who were "anointed by God" (but with no messianic overtones). The WOT self-defines the term with the words "the anointed", "the king", or "the anointed king" (sometimes in an alternate rendering, sometimes in italics).
However, reference is made to "Christ" in a prophetic manner, that is, in regard to the coming Messiah, in 1st Samuel 2:10 and 2:35, 2nd Samuel 23:1, Psalms 2:2 and 45:2, and Lamentations 4:20, all verses where the KJV and more modern translations say "anointed king" or "anointed prince"; throughout the Song of Songs, where the "Early Version", and one copy of the "Later Version", present the entire book as an allegorical dialogue between Christ and his bride, the Church; in Daniel 9:25 and 9:26, where the KJV says "Messiah", but modern translations simply say "prince"; and in Zechariah 3:8, where the KJV and other translations say "the Branch"/"The Branch", and Jewish Bibles suggest a formal name, rather than a messianic term. In Isaiah, where one might expect to find the word, if anywhere, it does occur, once, at 45:1, but only as "my christ", and refers to King Cyrus of Persia; in the KJV and other translations, the term used here is "his anointed".
Other titles in the WOT which also refer to the coming Messiah include "king", "duke", "prince", "saviour", "a just burgeoning", "a burgeoning of rightwiseness", "a seed of rightfulness", and "the sun of rightwiseness". None of these titles is ever capitalized in the WOT. However, in one verse, Zechariah 6:12, the coming Messiah is referred to as "a man, Coming forth, either Born, is his name" in the "Later Version", and as "a man, East, or Springing, (is) his name" in the "Early Version" (both examples are capitalized thus in the original text). The equivalent title used here in the KJV, and in several modern translations as well, is "The Branch". Overall, the KJV and other translations, including Jewish Bibles, capitalize words such as "King", "Prince", "Branch", and "Sun", as titles for the coming Messiah, but not always consistently internally, or in uniformity with one another. To aid comprehension, all are consistently capitalized in Wycliffe's Old Testament.
In Habakkuk 3:18, where the KJV has "God my saviour", and other translations have "God my deliverer"/"God my deliverance", Wycliffe's Old Testament, following the WOT (both versions), has "God my Jesus". The name "Jesus" is not here in the original Hebrew or Greek texts. Its insertion here in this verse by Christian preachers Wycliffe and Purvey illustrates their belief in the essential unity of the two testaments.
"Spirit" in the WOT can refer to God, His breath, or simply "the wind". So "the Spirit" and "the Spirit of God" are sometimes capitalized, sometimes not. Occasionally, the WOT has "the Spirit of the Lord", where the KJV and other translations have "the spirit of the Lord". But overall, "the Spirit of the Lord" is capitalized more often in the KJV Old Testament and other translations than in the WOT. This term is problematic. Wycliffe's Old Testament simply follows the WOT.
In the Wycliffe New Testament (both versions), "God", "Jesus", "Christ", and the "Holy Ghost" are always capitalized, while the "Father", the "Son" (of God, or of man), the "Spirit", "Lord", and "Saviour" are only sometimes capitalized. For consistency's sake, all have been capitalized in Wycliffe's New Testament. Other appellations and adjectives for God and Jesus, such as "the word", "the lamb", "shepherd", "master", "prince", "king", "holy" and "just" are not capitalized in the WNT, and remain not capitalized in Wycliffe's New Testament. "christian" is not capitalized in the WNT, nor in Wycliffe's New Testament. As always, the goal with each testament was to achieve a workable balance between providing an accurate representation of the original text, and enhancing reader comprehension, while remaining true to the context.
Words in italics are words added by the translators to aid comprehension. The KJV OT contains more italicized words than does the "Later Version" of the WOT, but less italicized words than the "Early Version" of the WOT. The KJV NT contains many more words in italics than the "Later Version" of the WNT, but less words in italics than the "Early Version" of the WNT. Wycliffe's Bible simply follows the WB in this regard. (Words in italics within parentheses in Wycliffe's New Testament are excerpts I have taken from the "Early Version of the WNT"; see the "Preface to the Revised Edition of Wycliffe's New Testament" for more information.)
When Wycliffe's Bible and the KJV are placed side-by-side, you can readily compare one text to the other. Sometimes reading Wycliffe's Bible first, then the KJV, you will see how the KJV grew out of the "Wycliffe Bible", and that it often follows it explicitly. Other times the KJV will help you to understand a difficult passage in Wycliffe's Bible. Sometimes the two texts will be different, but related; other times they will be as different as two versions of the same verse could be. But many times, particularly in regard to the New Testament, you will find these two texts very similar, and often, identical.
A Word Regarding the Primary Source
The primary source for this book was Forshall & Madden's 4-volume magnum opus, The Holy Bible, Containing the Old and New Testaments, With the Apocryphal Books, In the Earliest English Versions, Made from the Latin Vulgate by John Wycliffe and His Followers. Today, it is most likely found in a university library or on the Internet.
Written over a period of twenty years in the mid-19th century, this monumental work of scholarship was the crowning achievement of The Rev. Josiah Forshall and Sir Frederic Madden. From about 160 extant hand-printed copies of the two versions of the "Wycliffe Bible" (about 40 copies of the "Early Version" and about 120 copies of the "Later Version"), they selected one copy from each version to serve as a "master" text, and then, by utilizing over 90,000 footnotes, correlated the other copies with these two "master" texts.
Both versions of the "Wycliffe Bible" contain prologues (introductions to each book or group of related books, mostly taken from Jerome), and marginal glosses (explanations of the text by the translators, and some alternate renderings of words and phrases). The prologues are not utilized in Wycliffe's Bible. The glosses are a different story.
Some revisions of the "Later Version" of the WOT, particularly the copies Forshall & Madden labelled "C", "G", "K", "Q", and "X", and to a lesser extent, "B", "I", and "N", contain glosses which prove that Hebrew Bibles, commentaries, and scholars were consulted during the copying/revising process. Over 300 times throughout the WOT, gloss after gloss states: "in Hebrew, it is", "is not in Hebrew", "as Hebrews say", "as Hebrews understand", "this verse is not in Hebrew", "this title is not in Hebrew". As well, at least 7 times, a "Rabbi Solomon" is quoted as commenting on a particular verse: "as Rabbi Solomon saith". This "Rabbi Solomon" was most likely the scholar "Rashi", the leading commentator on the Jewish Bible and the Talmud in the 11th century, or possibly another commentator from history, or perhaps even a contemporary of the translators (although this is the least likely possibility). Another 5 times, reference is made to (Jerome's) "Book of Hebrew Questions", a book of the master translator's own corrections of the Greek and Latin texts, which he made by referencing the Hebrew Scriptures. Jerome believed that the Hebrew provided a truer text to translate from than either the earlier Latin versions or the Septuagint (a fact agreed to by all modern translators). So, where appropriate, the words and phrases from these glosses have been either incorporated into the main text of Wycliffe's Old Testament or are presented as alternate renderings. A few of the alternate renderings from the glosses are printed in this book, but all of them can be found in the online files and in files on the Wycliffe's Bible CD. As well, gleanings from other glosses are placed in footnotes in this book.
The footnotes in Forshall & Madden's four volumes are another source of invaluable information. As noted, there are over 90,000 footnotes, with about 65,000 pertaining to the Old Testament (both versions), and about 25,000 pertaining to the New Testament (both versions). These footnotes delineate textual divergence - changes, omissions, insertions, copyist errors - between the two "master" texts and the other hand-printed copies of both versions of the "Wycliffe Bible". (A footnote can either refer to a single copy or to multiple copies.) Close reading of these footnotes indicates that many times when a copy of either version was written (though less frequently with the "Early Version"), the original language texts were also consulted. For time and again, words were added, or changed, to produce a more accurate rendering of the original Hebrew of the Old Testament, and the original Greek of the New Testament. In creating Wycliffe's Bible, many of these footnotes were utilized to provide the most precise translation, as well as the best phrasing - the most satisfying, balanced, and rhythmic read - that is found within all extant copies of the "Wycliffe Bible". However, specifically in regard to Wycliffe's New Testament, no "Later Version" footnote was simply used to produce greater consistency with the KJV, nor were two footnotes combined within the same phrase ("between the commas") for that purpose. With some "Early Version" WNT verses, noteworthy phrasing from two (or more) footnotes were combined due to space limitations, and to avoid needless repetition. These excerpts are marked with a plus sign in superscript, "+" and are contained within square brackets, [ ]; all the other "Early Version" passages are from a single source.
In Wycliffe's Bible, a forward slash, "/", separates different renderings of the same phrase from two different hand-written copies, usually the "master" text and an alternate rendering found in a footnote. Most of the renderings from the footnotes in Wycliffe's Old Testament came from the copies labelled "I", "N", and "S". It is significant to note that numerous textual variations indicated by footnotes for only the "Early Version" also appear in the KJV. This strongly suggests that the KJV translators consulted a variety of copies of the "Wycliffe Bible" during the writing of the KJV (more on this below). See the online files or the files on the Wycliffe's Bible CD for the majority of these alternate renderings taken from the footnotes.
In creating Wycliffe's Bible, textual errors that were found in the "Wycliffe Bible" were not changed (they are also part of the reality of this book); none are of major doctrinal significance. Corrections of names, numbers, and places, most often found in chapters of repetitive lists, were placed in parentheses, immediately following the error, to enable better comparison with other translations.
A handful of printing errors - reversed letters or misread vowels of pronouns, prepositions, and adverbs - were discovered in the "Later Version" of the WB. These were confirmed by referring to the "Early Version", which in each case agreed with either the Hebrew of the OT, or the Greek of the NT, and not with the "Later Version" of the WB. These were corrected, and in the online files and in files on the Wycliffe's Bible CD, the "Early Version" phrases have been provided for comparison purposes.
Use of the "Early Version"
The "Later Version" of the "Wycliffe Bible" is the foundation upon which Wycliffe's Bible was built. Strictly speaking, Wycliffe's Bible is not a composite of the "Later" and "Early" versions. However, the "Early Version" of the WB was utilized in a number of significant ways in the writing of Wycliffe's Bible.
First, the "Early Version" was used to define unknown words found in the "Later Version". Irregular spelling can make even the simplest words difficult to decipher. The "Early Version" served as a second source for such words. Often it had a more recognizable spelling, and so helped to identify them. As well, as was stated above, often a modern equivalent of a "dead" word (to be used as a replacement or a substitution word) was found only in the "Early Version". Similarly, and again surprisingly, modern verb forms were also often found only in the "Early Version". Their existence helped achieve verb form consistency in Wycliffe's Bible.
Second, the "Early Version" served as a source of "missing" words and phrases. In the WOT, about two dozen times, a textually significant word or partial phrase was not found in the "Later Version", but was present in the "Early Version" (following the Hebrew and also found in the KJV). Examples include: Genesis 35:5 and 50:22; Leviticus 4:21; Numbers 32:29 and 35:27; Deuteronomy 3:22; Joshua 16:8; 1st Samuel 1:9; 2nd Samuel 17:28; 1st Kings 8:2, 8:34, 21:7, and 21:19; 2nd Kings 1:4; Ezra 4:8; Proverbs 5:4 and 21:21; Isaiah 64:2; Jeremiah 52:22; Ezekiel 15:4; Hosea 2:12; and Zechariah 7:4. (An even greater number of significant phrase fragments are "missing" from the WOT "Early Version".) In the WNT, a limited number of times, a textually significant word, or partial phrase, not found in the "Later Version", but present in the "Early Version" (following the Greek and also found in the KJV), was inserted into Wycliffe's New Testament to enhance its accuracy, reader comprehension, and/or the flow of the passage. Seven significant examples include Deeds 6:3, 13:20, 17:10, 18:21, Ephesians 6:21, and Apocalypse 16:4-5 and 17:16. Countless more times, less consequential "missing" words, mostly "and" and "the" - perhaps inadvertently "dropped" by weary or distracted copyists - were often found only in "Early Version" verses. These "missing" words, significant and insignificant alike, were inserted in Wycliffe's Bible to improve its accuracy, reader comprehension, and passage flow. All "missing" words are contained within square brackets [ ].
Third, like the glosses and footnotes, the "Early Version" itself served as a source of "alternate" words and phrases. When the "Early Version", the "Later Version", and the KJV are compared side-by-side, one discovers numerous instances where the KJV leaves off from following the "Later Version" and, to a greater or lesser degree, mirrors the "Early Version". Sometimes it is a single word, sometimes it is a phrase, and sometimes it is the order of several phrases within a verse. This usually occurs where the "Early Version" more closely follows the Hebrew of the OT, or the Greek of the NT, than does the "Later Version". These textually significant "alternate" renderings from the "Early Version" are also contained within square brackets [ ].
Fourth, the "Early Version" served as a source of "interesting" words and phrases, no more accurate than what is found in the "Later Version", and many not utilized by the KJV, but fascinating nevertheless. Words such as "experiment", "prescience", "copious", and "litigious", to name but a few. These words are written in italics, and are placed in square brackets, [ ], in Wycliffe's Old Testament, and in parentheses, "( )", in Wycliffe's New Testament (see the note below).
Fifth, in 1st Chronicles 8:16-26 (one of the "list" chapters), the text of the "Early Version" was used, rather than that of the "Later Version", because of more accurate punctuation. There are no major differences in wording between the two versions; consistency in punctuation and aid to comprehension were the only reasons for using these "EV" verses. Each verse is marked with a superscript "E" to denote its origin.
To sum up: All of the words in square brackets, "[ ]", in Wycliffe's Bible are from the "Early Version" of the "Wycliffe Bible". Some were added to aid textual accuracy, reader comprehension, and passage flow; other words are either "alternate" words that are textually closer to the original Hebrew or the original Greek, and/or what is found in the KJV, or simply "interesting" variations too fascinating to ignore. A limited number of these "EV" words are printed in Wycliffe's Bible, but all of them can be found in the online files and in files on the Wycliffe's Bible CD.
For the Revised Edition of Wycliffe's New Testament, the number of "Early Version" words in square brackets was dramatically reduced, in an effort to reduce clutter on the page, and so to improve readability. However, not wanting to short-change the reader of many of the insights and interesting alternatives found in the WNT "Early Version", notable excerpts were taken from the same verses, written in italics, and placed in parentheses. Indeed, all of the words in italics in parentheses in Wycliffe's New Testament are from the "Early Version" of the New Testament of the "Wycliffe Bible". For further details, see the "Preface to the Revised Edition of Wycliffe's New Testament".
All of the foregoing understood, it needs to be clearly stated that Wycliffe's Bible can be read, and readily comprehended, without reference to any of the words or phrases found within the square brackets or the parentheses. The "Later Version" of the "Wycliffe Bible" - as represented by Wycliffe's Bible - can and does stand on its own. The inclusion of the words in the square brackets, and those in parentheses, written in italics, simply provide additional dimensions of this seminal work in the English translation of the Bible. (For more discussion of "Early Version" highlights and insights, see the "Endnotes" section at the back of the book.)
A Final Note
With the spelling up-dated, and the obsolete words replaced, the book you now hold in your hands is a fair and accurate representation of John Wycliffe's and John Purvey's 14th century translation of the very first English vernacular Bible. This is their Bible with modern spelling - not some 21th century variation on a medieval theme. The melodies and harmonies are distinctly Wycliffe's and Purvey's. Only now they are sung with words that we can all understand. Six centuries later, you can now read what those common folk were themselves at long last able to read (or more likely, have read to them). Simple, direct words, with their own rhythm and charm, their own humble, cogent beauty. Sophisticated and graceful words, their originality and newness making the well-known and fondly remembered fresh and alive once again. All because John Wycliffe and John Purvey, and their compeers, cared so deeply, and sacrificed so dearly.
Today there are scores of modern translations of the Bible in English, available at the library, in bookstores, and on the Internet. But once, there was just one. This one. Try to imagine the impact upon hearing (or reading) these words for the very first time:
Ecclesiastes, Chapter 3:
"Wycliffe Bible", 1395 (Original Spelling):
Alle thingis han tyme,
Wycliffe's Bible, 2012 (Modern-Spelling Version):
All things have a time,
1395: and alle thingis vndur [the] sunne passen bi her spaces. 2012: and all things under the sun pass by their spaces, or pass forth in their places.
1395: Tyme of birthe, and time of diyng; 2012: A time of birth, and a time of dying;
1395: tyme to plaunte, and tyme to drawe vp that that is plauntid. 2012: a time to plant, and a time to draw up that which is planted.
1395: Tyme to slee, and tyme to make hool; 2012: A time to slay, and a time to make whole;
1395: tyme to distrie, and tyme to bilde. 2012: a time to destroy, and a time to build.
1395: Tyme to wepe, and tyme to lei3e; 2012: A time to weep, and a time to laugh;
1395: tyme to biweile, and tyme to daunse. 2012: a time to bewail, and a time to dance.
1395: Tyme to scatere stoonys, and tyme to gadere togidere; 2012: A time to scatter stones, and a time to gather them together;
1395: tyme to colle, ether biclippe, and tyme to be fer fro collyngis. 2012: a time to embrace, and a time to be far from embracings, or embraces.
1395: Tyme to wynne, and tyme to leese; 2012: A time to win, and a time to lose;
1395: tyme to kepe, and tyme to caste awei. 2012: a time to keep, and a time to cast away.
1395: Tyme to kitte, and tyme to sewe togidere; 2012: A time to cut, and a time to sew together;
1395: tyme to be stille, and tyme to speke. 2012: a time to be still, and a time to speak.
1395: Tyme to loue/Tyme of loue, and tyme of hatrede; 2012: A time to love/A time of love, and a time of hatred;
1395: tyme of batel, and tyme of pees. 2012: a time of battle, and a time of peace.
1 Following King Edward I's expulsion edict of 1290, decreeing the banishment of all Jews from England, the Jewish people were absent from its soil until the mid-17th century. However, Hebrew Old Testaments, commentaries, and other scholarly writings concerning the Hebrew Scriptures, were studied when the Old Testament of the "Wycliffe Bible" was written and revised (as were Greek sources when its New Testament was written and revised). For more on this, see 'A Word Regarding the Primary Source' below.
2 Nicholas (de) Hereford, an associate of Wycliffe's and Purvey's, helped write 2/3rds of the highly literal "Early Version" of the Old Testament (up to "Baruch", an apocryphal book then placed before "Ezekiel"), before he was summoned to Rome to explain his actions. Threatened with death by the Synod of Black Friars, he recanted. Pope Urbanus VI sentenced him to prison, where he possibly spent two years. When a civil insurrection broke out in Rome, the rioters set all the captives free. Hereford fled back to England and resumed his work to educate the ignorant and aid the poor. Arrested again, this time his recantation stuck. Thenceforth, he worked tirelessly against his former colleagues, testifying at their trials, vociferously and vituperatively condemning the writing of the English Bible. For his efforts, the Church princes rewarded him with the position of Chancellor and Treasurer of Hereford Cathedral, as well as a lifelong stipend. Finally, after a long life of shifting alliances, of activities of both grace and perfidy, Hereford retired to a Carthusian monastery, an austere, ascetic order that embraced solitude, silence, and midnight masses. Perhaps, at long last, he felt he had said enough.
