Читать книгу Bell's Cathedrals: The Cathedral Church of Durham - Joseph E. Bygate - Страница 5

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The traveller northward by the East Coast Route cannot fail to be struck by the beauty of the city of Durham, with its red-roofed houses nestling beneath the majestic site of the cathedral and castle. For splendid position the Cathedral of Durham stands unequalled in this country; on the Continent, perhaps that of Albi can alone be compared with it in this respect. The cathedral and Norman Castle are upon the summit of a lofty tongue of land which is almost surrounded by the River Wear. In parts the banks are rocky and steep, in others thickly wooded. The river itself is spanned here and there by fine and historic bridges.

The early history of Durham is obscure. There are many vague legends in existence, a natural consequence, perhaps, when we remember the various and often speedy changes of ownership to which that part of the country was for centuries subjected.

To lead up clearly to the founding of the Cathedral of Durham, it will be necessary to describe briefly the earliest introduction of Christianity into the north of England. That Christianity was known in this country during the time of the Romans there is sufficient evidence to prove. There is, however, little to show that it existed in the north to any appreciable extent. All or nearly all the carved stones, altars, etc., disinterred in that part of the country have been of undoubted Pagan origin.

The ancient kingdom of Northumbria comprised the present counties of Durham, Northumberland, and Yorkshire, and a part of the south-east of Scotland as far north as the Firth of Forth. This kingdom was sub-divided into two portions. The Southern, or Deira, extended from the Tees to the Humber, and the Northern, or Bernicia, reached from the Tees to the Firth of Forth. The province of Bernicia was settled about A.D. 547 by Ida, a chief of the Angles, who made his headquarters on a steep rock on the sea-coast about sixteen miles south of Berwick. He was succeeded by his son Ethelric, who built himself a stronghold, which he named after his wife Bebbanburgh, a name still retained in a shortened form—Bamburgh. Ethelric was followed by Ella, whose son Edwin was driven into exile by his fierce brother-in-law, Ethelfrith, and took possession of Deira, the southern province of Northumbria. After attaining his majority, Edwin, assisted by Redwald, regained his kingdom, and eventually ruled over the whole of Northumbria; it is during his reign that we find the first authentic history of Christianity in the north. Edwin married Ethelburga, a daughter of Ethelbert, king of Kent, who had been converted to Christianity by the preaching of S. Augustine. He himself received baptism at the hands of Paulinus (625–633), the great Roman missionary, who was sent north with the Princess Ethelburga. Paulinus fixed his headquarters at York, where he built his church, the forerunner of the present cathedral. This attempt of the Romans to christianise Northumbria was, however, of short duration. Cadwalla and Penda rose against them, and Edwin fell in battle at Hatfield Moor in Yorkshire. Paulinus, despairing of the cause, returned to Kent with the queen-widow Ethelburga and her children; and under Cadwalla and Penda, the kingdom soon relapsed into Paganism.

We must now direct our attention to a small, barren island on the west coast of Scotland, Iona. Here came a voluntary exile (A.D. 563), Columba, a monk, said to have been a descendant of the Irish kings. Here he lived and founded a great missionary monastery, which afterwards became the centre of Christian influence in Scotland and the north of England. He and his followers were active workers; they wrote Gospels and devotional books, preached, and built churches of wood. Columba died (A.D. 597), but his work was continued.

In 634, Oswald, a son of Ethelfrith, became king of Northumbria. In his youth he, with his brothers, had been obliged to flee to Scotland, where, during his exile, Oswald was converted to Christianity by the teachers of Iona. On his return he defeated and killed Cadwalla at Hevenfeld, or Heavenfield, near Hexham, in 634, and became the means of finally introducing Christianity into his kingdom. Soon after he became king, Oswald sent to Iona for help, and in reply came a monk, who, for some reason, said by old writers to be his harshness, failed in his mission. He was replaced by another monk named Aidan (635–651), who was eminently successful. Beda speaks of him as "a man of great piety and zeal, combined with tender charity and gentleness." Aidan became intimately associated with King Oswald, the two working together, and he chose for his headquarters the small sandy island of Lindisfarne, off the Northumbrian coast, which we now know as "Holy Island."

Lindisfarne thus resembled Iona, and it is probable that the similarity of position and surroundings influenced Aidan in his choice. However that may be, Aidan there founded his monastery and directed the work of his monks.

Passing over a short period, we find at Lindisfarne a monk who is so intimately connected with this cathedral that he demands special attention—the great S. Cuthbert, sixth bishop of Lindisfarne, and the patron saint of Durham. Little is known of his birth and parentage. Some writers give him a Scotch origin, others Irish,1 and others again say he was born of humble parents on the banks of the Tweed. The latter is most probable. Certain it is that at an early age he was left an orphan, and was employed as an under-shepherd near to Melrose. From his earliest youth he was thoughtful and pious, and watched and imitated in his mode of life the monks of Melrose. There are numerous legends and stories of S. Cuthbert's youth. He is said to have wrought many miracles, even to the extent of stilling a tempest. One of these may be told here on account of the share it played in his choice of monastic life:—On a certain night in A.D. 651, while tending his sheep, his companions being asleep, Cuthbert saw in the heavens a brilliant shaft of light, and angels descending. These very shortly re-ascended, bearing among them "a spirit of surpassing brightness." In the morning it was found that the good S. Aidan was dead. The vision had a marked and lasting effect on Cuthbert, and eventually resulted in his entering the monastery at Melrose. For ten years Cuthbert led a holy and studious life at Melrose, under Prior Boisil, when he was chosen among others to proceed to the newly-founded monastery at Ripon. His sojourn there was, however, short, as owing to doctrinal differences concerning the celebration of Easter, he and the other Scottish monks returned to Melrose. Some four years later, on the death of Boisil, Cuthbert was elected his successor, as prior of Melrose. In A.D. 664, we find him holding the same office at Lindisfarne, where he remained for twelve years. He then retired from his position, in order to attain a higher degree of Christian perfection by living a solitary life, first on a small island near Lindisfarne, and afterwards on the island of Farne, near Bamburgh. There are many stories told of his great piety at this time, so that even the wild sea-birds are said to have obeyed him.

In the year A.D. 685 Cuthbert was, though against his own wishes, consecrated Bishop of Lindisfarne. His great activity and usefulness in this office was soon cut short, for in less than two years, on the 20th of March A.D. 687, he died. Obediently to his own request, his body was wrapped in a linen cloth, which had been given him by the Abbess Yerca; and, placed in a stone coffin, the gift of the Abbot Cudda, was interred in the church at Lindisfarne. He was not to rest, however. In A.D. 698 the monks disinterred his remains in order to place them in a specially-prepared wooden coffin. It is said they found the saint's body perfectly incorrupt. To quote the quaint Hegge:

But whiles they opened his coffin, they start at a wonder, they look't for bones and found flesh, they expected a skeleton, and saw an entire bodie, with joynts flexible, his flesh so succulent, that there only wanted heate to make his bodie live without a soul, and his face so dissembling death, that elsewhere it is true that sleep is the image of death, but here death was the image of sleep. Nay, his very funerall weeds were so fresh, as if putrefaction had not dared to take him by the coat.2

Whatever may be the truth of this, his body was placed in a wooden coffin, portions of which are still preserved in the chapter library at Durham.

Over a century and a half after these events the coast of Northumbria was disturbed and troubled by the piratical invasions of the Danes. The number and violence of these incursions so increased that the whole country lay practically at their mercy. Becoming alarmed for their own safety and that of their holy relics, the monks of Lindisfarne fled, taking with them the body of their saint, and all their sacred vessels and books. This occurred in A.D. 875.

Here commenced that long wandering which eventually ended in the founding of the Cathedral Church of Durham, where the bones of S. Cuthbert found their final resting-place.

Bishop Eardulph and his monks, with their sacred charge, travelled for seven years, over a great portion of the north of England and part of the south of Scotland. Many churches dedicated to S. Cuthbert in the north are thought to mark their resting-places. From a list of these given by Prior Wessington the probable route of the wanderers can be approximately, made out as follows:—First to Elsdon and down the Rede to Haydon Bridge. Up the South Tyne to Beltinghame, and then following the route of the Roman Wall to Bewcastle. Turning south to Salkeld, and thence by Eden Hall and Plumbland into Lancashire, towards the river Derwent. Here they came to a determination to cross to Ireland, and took ship from the mouth of the Derwent. Very soon a violent storm arose, the vessel became unmanageable and was nearly filled with water, which, according to Symeon, immediately turned into blood. A return was inevitable. It was during this attempt that the famous copy of the Gospels, known as the Durham Book, was washed overboard into the sea. This book is, perhaps, the most beautiful example of Anglo-Saxon writing and illumination extant, and is surpassed only by the celebrated Irish MS., the Book of Kells. It was shortly afterwards found on the coast in a comparatively uninjured condition; and is now preserved in the British Museum. The wandering monks next turned northwards as far as Witherne, on the Galloway coast, and then returned to England, through Westmoreland and across Stainmoor into Teesdale, staying for a time at a village, which no doubt owes it present name Cotherstone to this circumstance. Leaving here and crossing the hills, through Marske, Forcett and Barton, they arrived at the abbey of Craike, near Easingwold, where they were kindly treated by the abbot, and remained about four months. On resuming their journey the monks removed the body of S. Cuthbert to Cuncachester, or, as we now know it, Chester-le-Street, a former Roman camp. Here the fraternity remained for a hundred and thirteen years; and here was the seat of the Bishopric of Bernicia until A.D. 995. Many are the legends clustering round these journeyings. How, when leaving Lindisfarne, the sea opened a passage for them, and how in more than one difficulty the dead saint himself gave them assistance. Notably, on one occasion when the bearers were worn out and weary he appeared and showed them where they would find a horse and car in which to carry their burden. This horse and car were afterwards used on their journeys.

In the year 995, again for safety, they removed once more under Bishop Aldhun, first for a short time to Ripon, and then finally to Durham. It is of this last journey the following story is told:—

"Coming with him" (v. Sanderson), "on the East Side of Durham, to a Place call'd Wardenlawe, they could not with all their Force remove his body further, for it seemed fastened to the Ground; which strange and unforeseen Accident produced great Astonishment in the Hearts of the Bishop, the Monks, and their Associates; whereupon they fasted and prayed three Days with great Devotion, to know by Revelation from God, what to do with the holy Body, which was soon granted to them, it being revealed to Eadmer, a virtuous Man, that he should be carried to Dunholme, where he was to be received to a Place of Rest. They were again in great Distress, in not knowing where Dunholme lay; but as they proceeded, a Woman wanting her Cow, called aloud to her Companion, to know if she had seen her? Who answered, She was in Dunholme. This was an happy and heavenly Sound to the distressed Monks, who thereby had Intelligence that their Journey's End was at Hand, and the Saint's Body near its Resting-place; thereupon with great Joy they arrived with his Body at Dunholme, in the Year 997."

The Dun Cow.

Arrived at Dunholm they raised a "little Church of Wands and Branches" to protect the sacred relics until a building more worthy of such a charge could be erected. This was the beginning of the Cathedral and City of Durham.

The condition of the place at this time must have been very wild, and it certainly was a natural stronghold. The only open spot seems to have been the plateau where the cathedral now stands. The site is curiously described in a Saxon poem, from which the following is a translation:—

The City is celebrated In the whole Empire of the Britons The road to it is steep It is surrounded with rocks And with curious plants The Wear flows round it A river of rapid waves And there live in it Fishes of various kinds Mingling with the floods. And there grow Great Forests, There live in the recesses Wild Animals of many sorts In the deep valleys Deer innumerable.

As soon as possible a stone chapel was built, in which the body of S. Cuthbert was placed. Bishop Aldhun, not satisfied with this, determined to establish a great church. Work was immediately commenced and progressed so rapidly that the building, known as "the White Church," was consecrated in A.D. 999. Of this there would seem to be no authentic remains existing; although some authorities think portions of it are included in the present cathedral. Bishop Aldhun died in 1018. The next date of importance is the year 1081, when William of Saint Carileph was appointed Bishop by the Conqueror. He was a monk of the Benedictine order, and at once drove out and dispossessed the secular clergy at Durham, replacing them from the Benedictine Monasteries which were established at Jarrow and Monkwearmouth. Bishop Carileph is the man to whom we owe the present Cathedral of Durham. In 1088 he was obliged to flee into exile in Normandy, where he remained three years, through his having taken part in the rebellion against William II. It was probably during this time of banishment that he conceived the idea that if he returned to Durham he would build a more worthy church, such as were already erected and in course of construction in Normandy.

Soon after his return in 1091 he commenced to carry out his scheme; and we learn that on the 11th of August 1093, the foundation stone of the new church was laid, with great pomp.

The work proceeded rapidly, commencing at the east end. By the time of Bishop Carileph's death, which occurred in 1096, the walls of the choir, the eastern walls of the transepts, the tower arches, and a portion of the first bay of the nave, were completed. It is also very probable that the lower portion of the walls of the whole church are of Carileph's time.

After the death of Bishop Carileph the see of Durham remained vacant for three years. The monks, however, were not idle during this period, and they continued the work vigorously, completing the west walls of the transepts and the vaulting of the north transept. In 1099 Ralph Flambard was appointed bishop, and he held the office until 1128. He carried on the building as the funds at his disposal would allow, sometimes rapidly and at others more slowly. Before his death it would appear that he completed the nave as high as the wall plates and altogether finished and roofed the aisles. The western towers as far as the height of the roof of the nave are also the work of Flambard. In 1104 the work was so far advanced as to permit the removal of the body of S. Cuthbert, from the temporary shrine which Bishop Carileph had erected over it, into the new church. This ceremony was performed on August 29th, 1104, and the coffin was placed in a shrine behind the high altar.

On Flambard's death in 1128 the see was again left vacant for five years, but we are told that the monks continued the work and completed the nave. The portion built by them at this time must of necessity have been the vaulting and roof, the architectural features of which are quite in accordance with the date, being late Norman.

Flambard's successor was Galfrid Rufus, who was Bishop from 1133 to 1140.

During his episcopate the chapter-house, which had been commenced by the monks, was completed. Rufus also replaced the then existing north and south doorways of the nave, by those standing to-day.

The next bishop, William de St. Barbara (1143 to 1152), does not appear to have added anything to the cathedral. During his time of office the see was usurped by William Cummin, and building operations were no doubt neglected through the troubles arising from the usurpation. His successor, Hugh Pudsey (1153 to 1195) was, however, a great builder; appointed to the see at a comparatively early age, and, living as he did, at a time when very great changes were taking place in architectural style, he was able to carry out a great deal of beautiful work.

He began to build a Lady Chapel at the east end of the choir, but although he had made careful preparations, and engaged skilled architects and workmen, great cracks appeared in the walls before the work had proceeded far, and the building was stopped. Bishop Pudsey, taking this as a divine revelation that the work was not pleasing to God, and the patron S. Cuthbert, abandoned it and commenced another chapel at the west end of the church, using in its erection the Purbeck marble bases and columns which he had had prepared for his eastern chapel. This second attempt was successful and remains to us in that beautiful and unique specimen of Transitional work, the Galilee Chapel. Its date may be taken, says Canon Greenwell, "as about the year 1175." Besides this work Pudsey built the hall and solar now called (at the top) the "Norman Gallery" of Durham Castle.

Little or nothing further seems to have been done until the translation of Bishop Poore from the see of Sarum to Durham in 1229. The name of Bishop Poore is inseparably connected with the building of the present Salisbury Cathedral, and after his removal to Durham he conceived the idea of, and made preparations for, commencing the eastern transept of the Cathedral, which is a special feature of Durham, now known as the Chapel of the Nine Altars. He was not, however, destined to live to see his idea carried out.

The eastern termination of Carileph's choir had been apsidal; it was found to be in a very unsafe condition, cracks and fissures appearing in the walls. Various bishops and priors sent aid towards "the new work," but actual building did not commence until after the death of Bishop Poore in 1237. The erection was commenced by Prior Melsanby and, of course, necessitated the taking down of Carileph's apses. The revaulting of the choir was undertaken at this time, doubtless, for artistic reasons, to bring the new work into harmony with the old. The Chapel of the Nine Altars is a rare and valuable specimen of Early English Gothic architecture of remarkable and graceful design. Below each of its nine lancet windows was originally an altar, dedicated to different saints. Its great height was obtained by lowering the floor, so that the unity of the whole exterior should not be destroyed. Prior Melsanby is also said to have put a new roof on the church.

Prior Hugh de Derlington, who was at the head of affairs from 1258 to 1272, and later from 1285 to 1289, added a belfry to the central tower.

John Fossor, made prior of Durham in 1342, inserted the large window in the north transept and the west windows of the nave.

Bishop Thomas de Hatfield (1346 to 1381) seems to have done no architectural work beyond the erection of his own throne and tomb (in which he was afterwards buried) on the south side of the choir. This is an elaborate and sumptuous piece of work, and shows remains of rich colouring and gilding. About this time, also, the beautiful altar screen known as the Neville screen was erected. Its cost was principally borne by Lord John Neville, though the Priors Fossor and Berrington and the subordinate cells of Jarrow and Monkwearmouth were also contributors. The screen is of stone—very light and graceful, and originally contained in the niches 107 figures, which have unfortunately been destroyed.

Bishop Walter de Skirlaw, who occupied the episcopal throne from 1388 to 1405, was a great builder. To him mainly we owe the present cloisters, though they were completed by his successor, Cardinal Langley, in 1418.

The monks' dormitory on the western side of the cloister is also of this time. On the southern side was the refectory. This portion was rebuilt by Dean Sudbury between 1661 and 1684 and converted into a library, and such it remains to-day.

Near the refectory is the kitchen, built by Prior Fossor. It is octagonal in plan, and possesses a fine groined roof. It is now attached to the deanery, and known as the dean's kitchen.

We must now turn our attention to the erection of the present central tower. The belfry added by Hugh de Derlington was in 1429 struck by lightning and set on fire. It must after this have been repaired in some way, but in 1456 it was in a very unsafe and dangerous condition, as the following letter written by the prior, William Ebchester, to Bishop Neville testifies:—

"The Belfry of your church, both in its masonry and timber, in consequence of winds and storms is so enfeebled and shaken, that doubts are entertained of its standing for any length of time. We have called in workmen in both capacities, and they have reported to us that three of its sides are out of perpendicular, that many of the Key and cornerstones of its windows have fallen out, that in other respects it is defective, and that besides, its woodwork is in a state of great decay so that it cannot be expected to stand for any length of time. Some are of opinion that the belfry should be totally removed as it cannot stand longer; others on the contrary, wish it to be perfectly restored; a thing which exceeds our means, unless we have the advantage of charitable aid. In this state of doubt and hesitation, we have recourse to you, as members to their head, presuming not to engage in any such great and stupendous alteration with reference to your church, without your advice.

"If, which God forbid, the tower should fall, the solemn fabric of our choir, and the shrine of our most holy patron, would without doubt, be broken down and irrevocably laid flat on the ground, for that is the direction in which it leans. We confess that whenever winds and storms are high, and we are standing at our duty in that part of the church we tremble for our fate, having positive danger before our eyes."

Shortly afterwards, the rebuilding of all the upper part of the central tower was commenced and continued for some years. It was not complete in 1474 when Richard Bell was prior, as in a letter written at the time he mentions the "reedificacion of our steeple, begun but nogt fynyshed, in defaulte of goods, as God knoweth." It is therefore most probable that the upper portion was not completed until towards the close of the fifteenth century.

We have now reached a period when the glories of Gothic architecture were fading, during which many of our finest churches suffered considerably. Durham is no exception to the rule, and we find during the next two centuries a long record of destruction and so-called improvement. This, perhaps, reached its worst stage during the time of Wyatt, who in 1796 pulled down the magnificent Norman chapter-house. During the last decade, however, this has been completely rebuilt from as nearly as possible the original design. Wyatt also rebuilt the turrets on the eastern transept or Nine Altar Chapel from his own design, and removed the great Early English rose window in the east end and replaced it by the present one. The original stained glass was taken out of all the windows of the east end, and Raine, in his history, tells us that it "lay for a long time afterwards in baskets upon the floor, and when the greater part of it had been purloined, the remainder was locked up in the Galilee. … At a still later period, about fifteen years ago, portions of it were placed in the great round window, and the rest still remains unappropriated." This was written in 1833. It is also on record that Wyatt formed a scheme to re-open the great western doorway of the cathedral by the pulling down of the Galilee Chapel, from which he intended constructing a carriage-drive to the castle. This abomination was actually commenced when Dean Cornwallis arrived, and he, with the assistance of John Carter, and the Society of Antiquaries, was fortunately able to put a stop to it. Thus was this beautiful and unique specimen of Transitional Norman architecture preserved to us.

Wyatt contemplated several other "improvements" of a similar character, one of which was the surmounting of the central tower by a spire, but fortunately he was not allowed to carry them out.

During the present century many restorations have been made, of which we will mention only the most notable:—The central tower was restored by Sir Gilbert Scott in 1859.