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1 1. Gamper, “Radrennfahrer,” 197–202.

2 2. However, this also includes those who, for example, step onto the scales regularly. Around 20 percent of Americans are said to practice self-tracking in the narrower sense, with this figure referring to 2013. Not least due to the many different forms tracking may take, the numbers vary greatly; Fox and Duggan, “Tracking for Health.”

3 3. QS: Quantified Self: Self Knowledge Through Numbers – Deutsche Community, http://qsdeutschland.de/info/ (accessed May 9, 2016).

4 4. Rippberger, “Fitness-Apps”; Schmedt, “Fitness-Tracker”; Swan, “Quantified Self”; Crawford et al., “Our Metrics, Ourselves,” 490–4. For a summary, see also Duttweiler et al., Leben nach Zahlen.

5 5. Lupton, Quantified Self, 3; Lupton, “Self-Tracking Citizenship”; for a concept of citizenship that has been expanded in a particularly productive way, see Rose and Novas, “Biological Citizenship”; Honneth, Anerkennung; see also Cooper, Citizenship, Inequality, and Difference.

6 6. Volkwein, “Introduction”; Volkwein quotes from, among other things, 1996 guidelines issued by the US Department of Health and Human Services. Bauman, Liquid Modernity; Sloterdijk, You Must Change Your Life.

7 7. Volkwein, “Introduction,” xi, xv.

8 8. Bröckling, “Prävention,” 214. See also Bröckling, Gute Hirten führen sanft, 73–112, on prevention and “the power of prophylaxis.” On prevention as a “cultural technology of modernity,” see Lengwiler and Madarász, “Präventionsgeschichte.”

9 9. See Judith Butler’s performance concept, as explained in Butler, “Performative Acts.”

10 10. Biltekoff, Eating Right, 5–6.

11 11. Crawford et al., “Our Metrics, Ourselves,” 487. On the Microsoft ad from 2014, see Rubino, “Microsoft Band”; Mackert and Martschukat, “Introduction: Critical Ability History.”

12 12. Butler, Bodies that Matter. See also Bauman, “Postmodern Uses of Sex.”

13 13. See Metzl and Kirkland (eds.), Against Health; Guthman, Weighing In, which also addresses the debate on “healthism” and the normative elements in the pursuit of health; on this topic, see also Crawford, “Healthism.”

14 14. On participation under dictatorships and state socialism, see, for example, Lüdtke, “Deutsche Qualitätsarbeit,” or Offermann, “Socialist Responsibilization.”

15 15. McRuer, “Compulsory Able-Bodiedness”; McRuer, Crip Theory; Mackert, “Writing the History.”

16 16. Anon., “Deutschland verfettet”; Froböse et al., Der DKV-Report 2018. On performance or efficiency as a modern paradigm, see Verheyen, Die Erfindung der Leistung.

17 17. There is a wealth of references to choose from, such as Saguy, What’s Wrong With Fat?, 107ff.; Gilman, Obesity; Biltekoff, Eating Right. See also, for example, Pollack, “A.M.A. Recognizes Obesity”; Bakalar, “Obesity Rates”; Anon, “Übergewicht in Deutschland”; CDC Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics, “Obesity and Overweight,” http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/obesity-overweight.htm (May 11, 2016); “The State of Obesity – Better Policies for a Healthier America, Obesity Rates and Trends,” http://stateofobesity.org/rates/ (May 11, 2016); Hales et al., “Differences in Obesity.”

18 18. Kim et al., “Causation or Selection.”

19 19. See, for example, Gard, End of the Obesity Epidemic; Saguy, What’s Wrong?; Frommeld, “Fit statt fett”; and on “excess weight” and life expectancy, see Afzal et al., “Change in Body Mass Index.”

20 20. Wirtz, “Fit statt fett”; Geyer, “Fit statt fett”; for an early campaign, see Essen und Trimmen – beides muß stimmen, Frankfurt am Main: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Ernährung (c. 1976), and Bundeszentrale für Gesundheitliche Aufklärung, Essen und trimmen, beides muß stimmen. On nudging, see Thaler and Sunstein, Nudge; Hildebrandt, “Stups zum Glück.” Just how paradigmatic “nudging” is to the governance of liberal societies becomes clear if one reads the book by Thaler and Sunstein together with Michel Foucault’s studies of governmentality: Foucault, Security, Territory, Population, and Foucault, The Birth of Biopolitics. See also Foucault’s remarks on power as decentral and as action that acts upon the action of others; Foucault, “Subject and Power.”

21 21. Sutton, “First Lady”; see also the website of “Let’s Move” at https://letsmove.obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/ (May 12, 2016); for a summary, see Martschukat, “On Choice.”

22 22. The UK, for example, introduced a sugar tax in 2016: Triggle, “Sugar Tax”; similar taxes have been imposed in the United States, for example in Philadelphia and parts of California; “Tax Soda to Help Fight Obesity,” Bloomberg Opinion, May 14, 2018, https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2018-05-14/tax-soda-and-other-sugary-drinks-to-fight-obesity (accessed November 13, 2018).

23 23. Foucault, Society Must Be Defended.

24 24. Mollow and McRuer, “Fattening Austerity”; Scholl (ed.), Körperführung.

25 25. Mollow and McRuer, “Fattening Austerity”; Kreisky, “Fitte Wirtschaft”; Graf, “Leistungsfähig.”

26 26. Brown, Undoing the Demos, 15–50, quote on 21, “portfolio value” on 33, homo oeconomicus and politicus on 87.

27 27. Rose, “Molecular Biopolitics,” 11; Rose, Powers of Freedom; Rose and Novas, “Biological Citizenship”; Dean, Governing Societies.

28 28. Rose and Novas, “Biological Citizenship,” 451.

29 29. Pateman, Sexual Contract; Mills, Racial Contract.

30 30. Willard, A Wheel within a Wheel.

31 31. A change of this kind has also taken place in the cultural and social sciences, where malleability and performativity have gradually gained acceptance as paradigms, in the shape of “doing gender,” “doing race,” and “doing sex.” A crucial text here is Butler, Gender Trouble; for a multiperspectival account that provides an overall assessment, see Netzwerk Körper (ed.), What Can a Body Do?

32 32. It seems no more than logical that critical voices in disability and fat studies have distanced themselves from constructivist views; see Mollow, “Disability Studies Gets Fat”; Mollow and McRuer, “Fattening Austerity.”

33 33. Guthman, Weighing In, 47–63; Moran, Governing Bodies, 112–54.

34 34. Dilley (ed.), Darwinian Evolution; Mackert, “I Want to Be a Fat Man”; Gilman, Fat Boys; Farrell, Fat Shame.

35 35. Wildt, Beginn der Konsumgesellschaft, 73–108; Cohen, Consumers’ Republic, 111–65; Levenstein, Paradox of Plenty, 101–30; Moran, Governing Bodies, 112–31.

36 36. Biltekoff, Eating Right, 115; Levenstein, Fear of Food, 136; Ehrenreich, The Hearts of Men; Kury, Der überforderte Mensch, 109–75.

37 37. Levenstein, Fear of Food, 124–35; Möhring, “Ethnic Food,” 320.

38 38. Biltekoff, Eating Right; Dufty, Sugar Blues; Möhring, “Ethnic Food,” 320.

39 39. Davis, From Head Shops to Whole Foods; Pollan, Omnivore’s Dilemma; Belasco, Appetite for Change; Möhring, “Ethnic Food,” 322.

40 40. Cowie, Great Exception, 182, 202; Simon, Hamlet Fire; Doering-Manteuffel and Raphael, Nach dem Boom.

41 41. Guthman, Weighing In, 116–39; Pollan, Omnivore’s Dilemma; Simon, “Geography of Silence.”

42 42. Allcott et al., “Geography of Poverty”; Florida, “Food Deserts”; Reynolds and Mirosa, “Want Amidst Plenty”; Coleman-Jensen, “U.S. Food Insecurity Status”; Barrett, “Measuring Food Insecurity.”

43 43. Guthman, Weighing In, 163–84; Martschukat, “On Choice.”

44 44. Biltekoff, Eating Right, 94–5; Wolfe, “The ‘Me’ Decade.” The quote comes from a letter cited in Edgely et al., “Rhetoric of Aerobics,” 188.

45 45. Davis, From Head Shops to Whole Foods, 176–223; Belasco, Appetite for Change; Levenstein, Fear of Food, 116–24; on the overlap between counterculture and flexible capitalism, see Reichhardt, Authentizität und Gemeinschaft.

46 46. Zukin, Naked City.

47 47. Serazio, “Ethos Groceries”; Pollan, Omnivore’s Dilemma; Levenstein, Fear of Food, 123.

48 48. Handelsblatt, December 30, 1985, quoted in Möhring, “Ethnic Food,” 322.

49 49. Elliott, Better Than Well; Biltekoff, Eating Right, 84–91, 94; Levenstein, Fear of Food, 142–59; MarketsandMarkets, “Weight Loss Management.”

50 50. Crawford, “Boundaries of the Self,” 1356; Kingsolver, Animal, Vegetable, Miracle, 130: “Cooking is good citizenship”; Paul Nolte, “Das große Fressen”; Biltekoff, Eating Right, 99–108; Belasco, Appetite for Change, 196–7; Moran, Governing Bodies, 132–54.

51 51. On the concept of sport, see Eisenberg, “English Sports” und deutsche Bürger; Guttmann, From Ritual to Record; on the distinction between sport and fitness, see Graf, “Leistungsfähig,” 139–40; Bette, Sportsoziologie, 5–6. The term “fitness,” described as “Germanized” American English, first appeared in Duden in 1976, which defined it as a “good physical condition, performance capacity [based on the methodical practice of sport],” and provided the following example: “to maintain one’s fitness through recreational sport”: Duden: Das große Wörterbuch, 851. Dilger, Fitnessbewegung in Deutschland, 238–45; Müllner, “Sich in Form bringen”; Scholl, “Europäische Biopolitik?”

52 52. See DSB ads associated with the get-fit campaign “Ein Schlauer trimmt die Ausdauer” (“The Smart Ones Get Fit through Endurance”) (1975–8) on YouTube at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z7n-lUy1dAs and https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kWkjnPiXlJ0 (July 2, 2016); Pfütsch, “Zwischen Gesundheit und Schönheit.”

53 53. Ninety percent of respondents in a representative municipal survey carried out by K. Bös and A. Woll in the 1980s were familiar with Trimmy; see Mörath, Trimm-Aktionen, 11.

54 54. Essen und Trimmen – beides muß stimmen, Frankfurt am Main: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Ernährung; in 1980, the Federal Center for Health Education published a workbook on the topic “eat well and get fit – you need both.”

55 55. Reed, “America Shapes Up.”

56 56. Barney, “Book Review: Whorton,” here 104; Wolfe, “The ‘Me’ Decade.”

57 57. New-York-City-Marathon, in Wikipedia, https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/New-York-City-Marathon (accessed July 5, 2016) and Berlin-Marathon, in Wikipedia, https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin-Marathon (accessed July 5, 2016).

58 58. Runner’s World was launched in 1966 as a homemade magazine published by a running fan with two issues a year and a print run of 500 copies. By the end of the 1970s, the magazine had long since attained a professional editorial staff and appeared monthly, with a print run of 500,000 copies; Black, Making the American Body, 77; McKenzie, Getting Physical, 129.

59 59. Sheehan, “Medical Advice”; on the agency of fat, see Forth, “On Fat.”

60 60. Martschukat, “What Diet Can Do.”

61 61. Hanner, “Beginning Running”: “[running] has really changed my entire existence around”; Fischer, Mein langer Lauf.

62 62. Corbitt, “Adjusting to Advancing Age.”

63 63. On the 1970s as an era characterized by both the counterculture and neoliberalism, see Tuck, “Introduction,” and the other contributions to the journal issue. On European history in this regard, see the special issue of Zeithistorische Forschungen on “Die 1970er Jahre.”

64 64. Luciano, Looking Good, 121.

65 65. On this recent history of fitness in the United States, see McKenzie, Getting Physical. On the running movement, see Plymire, “Positive Addiction”; on the spirituality of this movement, see Edgely et al., “Rhetoric”; on the search for moral leadership as a driving force of the transformation of the United States since the 1970s, see Krämer, Moral Leaders; on the new morality and physicality, see Metzl and Kirkland (eds.), Against Health.

66 66. Cooper, Aerobics. Cooper, The New Aerobics, was hugely successful.

67 67. Bassler, “Live Like a Marathoner.” For an overview, see Rader, “The Quest.”

68 68. On the body and health as key issues of the women’s movement, see Kline, Bodies of Knowledge. Initially, the feminist movement was predominantly white. From the mid-1970s on, however, black women increasingly highlighted issues emerging at the intersection of feminism and antiracism. For a summary of Black feminism and intersectionality, see Mackert, “Kimberlé Crenshaw.”

69 69. Women’s advocates’ relationship to competitive sports was somewhat more ambivalent. On the one hand, many aspects of such sports now opened up to women that had previously been denied them, and female athletes became role models in part because they incorporated themselves proactively into a competitive order. On the other hand, feminists criticized competitive sports as a typical embodiment of aggressive masculinity. Cahn, Coming on Strong; Schultz, Qualifying Times, 123–48; Theberge, “A Critique of Critiques.” On feminist fitness in the nineteenth century, see Vertinsky, “Feminist Charlotte Perkins Gilman.” For an overview, see Thorpe and Olive (eds.), “Forum: Feminist Sport History.”

70 70. Fraser, “How Feminism Became Capitalism’s Handmaiden”; Fraser, “Feminism.”

71 71. Villa, “Habe den Mut”; Luciano, Looking Good; Pfütsch, “Zwischen Gesundheit und Schönheit.”

72 72. Butler, Psychic Life of Power; Reckwitz, Subjekt; Schultz, Qualifying Times, 139–46; Hargreaves, Sporting Females, 160; Woitas, “Vom männlichen Elitetraining”; Markula, “Firm but Shapely”; Bradshaw, “Empowerment and Sport Feminism.”

73 73. McKenzie, Getting Physical, 164; Schultz, Qualifying Times, 136–8.

74 74. Jane Fonda, Workout (VHS; USA, 1982); Black, Making the American Body, 79–87; Woitas, “Go for the burn!”

75 75. Woitas, “Vom männlichen Elitetraining.”

76 76. See Gustav-Wrathall, Take the Young Stranger, on YMCA sports facilities as dating sites.

77 77. McKenzie, Getting Physical, 168–72; Dilger, Die Fitnessbewegung in Deutschland, 245–366; “cathedrals” in Reed, “America Shapes Up.”

78 78. Scheller, No Sports!; Pumping Iron (USA, 1977).

79 79. Bailey, Fit or Fat?, 101.

80 80. Rader, “The Quest.”

81 81. Roosevelt, “The Strenuous Life”; Möhring, “Ethnic food,” 327–8.

The Age of Fitness

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