Читать книгу The Industrial Arts in Spain - Juan F. Riaño - Страница 6
Оглавление"Operatum est Era DCCCCXLVIII."
A diptych which belongs to the same shrine may also be mentioned. It was given by Bishop Don Gonzalo, who was bishop of Oviedo from A.D. 1162 to 1175. Round it are the words—Gundisalvus Episcopus me jussit fieri. This diptych is 5 inches long by 7 wide: it is ornamented with ivory figures, stones, crystals and engraved gems. Although I do not consider it to be of Spanish workmanship, it is necessary to mention the splendid Arca Santa, in which it is believed many of the relics were taken to Oviedo. It is covered with silver plates, with repoussé and chiselled work representing different religious subjects: the Crucifixion, Our Lord surrounded by the attributes of the Evangelists, saints, apostles, angels, and a fine ornamental border with letters, imitating Cufic inscriptions. This splendid casket is 3 feet 9½ inches long, by 3 and 3½ wide, and 28½ inches high, and appears to have been made between the 10th and 12th centuries. The figures are similar in style to the paintings and sculpture of this period, and it is highly probable that it may have been the work of Italian artists. The Cufic inscription is illegible, and is interrupted in the angles by the symbols of the Evangelists. This style of simulated inscriptions was frequently used by Italian artists.
A cross of the same style as those already described exists at the cathedral of Santiago. It is made of wood covered with gold platings and precious stones; some of these are old intagli, which are set in delicate filigree work. Round it runs a long inscription, from which it appears that it was a present from Adefonsus Princeps cum conjuge Scemena Regina, and that it was made in Era DCCCCA. Duodecima; A.D. 874. The number of gems which have reached us, after so many centuries of ruin, the similarity of the different specimens, and the statement which appears on the cross of King Pelayo, that it was made at the castle of Gauzon, prove that the goldsmith's industry had attained great importance in Spain during this period.
By studying the different objects of silver and gold work which still exist in Spanish churches, we can form a good idea of the historical progress of this industry in the following centuries of the Middle Ages; but before we do so, it is well to make some observations upon objects of orfèvrerie, the work of the Moors. There is a constant connection between these objects and those made of ivory: the same characteristics exist which I shall hereafter point out as appearing in Moorish ivory carvings. The art of ivory carving was imported from the East, the subjects are much alike in ivory and metal when men and animals are represented, and the inscriptions and bands of ornamentation are similar in style. The main variations consist in the different systems employed in metal work, by which the work differs according to the proceedings adopted, of repoussé or chiselling, filigree, niellos or enamels.
A fine Casket belongs to this kind of oriental work which still may be seen on the high altar of the cathedral of Gerona, Spain. This casket is 15 inches long by 9 wide and 10½ high. It is made in the usual manner of wood covered with silver gilt platings with a heavy repoussé ornamentation of leaves enclosed within circles of pearls. Round the rim of the cover runs the following Cufic inscription:
"In the name of God. The blessing of God and happiness and prosperity and permanent joy for the servant of God, Alhakem Emir Amumenin Almostanser Billah, because he ordered this casket to be made for Abdul walid Hischem, heir to the throne of the Muslims. It was finished by the hands of Hudzen Ibn Bothla."
Alhakem reigned in Spain from A.D. 961 to 976, in which year he was succeeded by his son Hischem II. This casket belongs, therefore, to this period, and is especially interesting as giving the artist's name. Two other silver Arabian caskets may be seen at the Archæological Museum, Madrid, which were formerly at the shrine of San Isidoro of Leon, but they possess less artistic interest than the casket at Gerona. One of these is elliptical in form; it is ornamented with a good design of leaves and tendrils, and Cufic inscription; the whole of the casket is enamelled in black. The ornamentation belongs to the 12th century. The inscription only mentions the owner's name, Abdo Shakir. The other casket is silver-gilt, square in form, and rather poorly ornamented. The two Cufic inscriptions which surround it are laudatory. At the cathedral of Oviedo there is another silver casket with a laudatory inscription and medallions with figures, in which from very early times, the remains of Sta. Eulalia have been kept. I suspect that this casket and the former one are not of Spanish Arab workmanship, for besides the circumstance that their inscriptions can be applied to any owner, their ornamentation is unlike others of the same kind. In the first casket it is insignificant, but on the shrine of Sta. Eulalia the background of the medallions is covered with an imbricated pattern which I have never seen repeated on any Arab or Moorish example in Spain. It is highly probable that they were productions of Oriental industry and were imported commercially.
Several specimens of the 14th and 15th centuries, the last period of the Moorish domination, exist in Spain. They consist of jewels and sword handles. The most interesting trinkets are a bracelet and fragments of a necklace and earrings which are at the Archæological Museum, Madrid. They are made of gold, covered with a geometrical repoussé ornamentation, and a delicate filigree pattern. There are specimens also at the Kensington Museum, Nos. 1455 to 1447, 70, consisting of a bracelet, silver-gilt, formed of seven alternate oval and rectangular plaques, with impressed pattern and applied filigree and bossed ornament, and earrings made of gold, formed of clusters of united circles and lozenges with filigree bosses. Other jewels of less importance are known to exist, consisting of bracelets, amulets, earrings, and rings, mostly made of silver niello-work, these are ornamented with geometrical patterns and inscriptions of little importance.
Moorish arms are most artistic; they are fully described in the article Arms. The most important specimens are in the Royal Armoury, and noble house of Villaseca, Madrid; another fine example of a similar style is at the Generalife of Granada. The hilt and settings of the sheath are of solid silver, gilt, and covered with geometrical patterns ornamented in high relief, parts of which are filled with translucid cloisonné enamel. In some instances the hilt is made of ivory. It is impossible (see plate on p. 85) to find anything more beautiful than the ornamentation of these swords, or greater perfection in every detail. It is evident, therefore, that this industry had reached a very high grade of perfection at Granada in the second part of the 15th century. The sword now in the possession of the Villaseca family belonged to Boabdil, the last Moorish king; the one at Granada to one of Boabdil's nearest relations.
In continuing our description of Christian silver-work in the 11th and 12th centuries, we meet with two historical chalices of the highest interest. One was made by the order of Saint Domingo de Silos [A.D. 1045-1074] when abbot of this church. This chalice still exists there, with the following inscription:—
In nomine Domini ob honorem Sci Sebastiani Dominico abbas fecit.
It is ornamented with fine filigree work, forming zones and horse-shoe arches, in a similar style to that of the silversmiths' work of Asturias, which has never been completely abandoned in Spain. The author of the life of this saint, Fr. Juan de Castro, Madrid 1688, says, p. 297, that he does not consider it was ever used for the sacrifice of the mass, owing to its great height [13 inches]. The other chalice might have been seen until very lately at San Isidoro, Leon; it has been temporarily concealed owing to political disturbances. The cup and foot are of agate, probably specimens of the classic period; the mounting, which dates from the time of Dna. Urraca, is studded with a profusion of precious stones and pastes. Some of the gems of the chalice and paten are antiques.[A] In the centre of the paten is set a splendid flat onyx. Round the lower part runs the following inscription:—
+ In nomine Dn̄i Urraca Fredin̄ādi.
[A] For further details of this interesting work of art, see "Monumentos Arquitectonicos de España," in which a good reproduction is given.
Dona Urraca, who was a sister of Alfonso VI., and was generally called Urraca Fernandez, bestowed many important gifts on the church of San Isidoro. She died A.D. 1101. Another interesting chalice of the same period, although not of the same importance as those just named, belongs to Cardinal Moreno, archbishop of Toledo. Round the stem are represented the emblems of the Evangelists, and the inscription: Pelagius abbas me fecit; this formula appears so frequently that it must be understood in the sense of fecit fieri, ordered to be made.
The Santo Caliz at Valencia has been traditionally held as the cup used by Our Saviour at the Last Supper. This chalice consists of a circular cup hollowed out from a fine brown sardonyx which is tastefully moulded round the lip. The base is formed of another inverted sardonyx. These are united by straps of pure gold. The stem is flanked by handles, which are inlaid with delicate arabesque in black enamel. Oriental pearls are set round the base and stem, which alternate with rubies, sapphires and emeralds. This chalice is a work of the Roman imperial epoch, and the mounts are of a later date. Other specimens of jewellers' work of the Roman period might be mentioned which exist in Spain, but I do not find sufficient evidence to justify the opinion that they were made in that country. I consider those that I have described to be of Spanish origin, for they keep to the same technical modes of workmanship as the jewel work of Asturias, and the inscriptions which appear on them refer to historical personages. It would be difficult, considering all things, to suppose they were imported.
ONE LEAF OF TRIPTYCH IN CATHEDRAL OF SEVILLE.
We can mention in the thirteenth century a specimen of Spanish silversmiths' work which illustrates the transition to the new style, and the progress in the design of the figures owing to the Italian Renaissance—I refer to the interesting triptych at the Cathedral of Seville, known as the "Tablas Alfonsinas," made by the order of Don Alfonso el Sabio for holding relics. It is of wood, covered inside and out with silver-gilt plates; it is 22 inches high by 39 wide when its three leaves are open (the woodcut opposite represents the outside of left leaf), and is divided inside into fifteen compartments full of minute ornamentation, among which are set a large number of capsules covered with rock crystal containing relics, each one with an inscription of enamelled gold, cloisonné. Several good cameos with sacred subjects appear near the edge of the side leaves. The outside of this triptych is decorated with twelve medallions containing the arms of Castile and Aragon, and forty-eight others in which are repeated alternately the subjects of the Adoration of the Magi and Annunciation of the Virgin, which are also repoussé. In the centres are eagles, which Sr. Rios supposes to allude to Don Alonso's claim to be crowned Emperor, in which case it was made in the year 1274. (See Mus. esp. de Antig., vol. ii. p. 83.) The ornamentation which surrounds the panels belongs to the 16th century. Sr. Rios suggests that the possible or probable author of this interesting object of silversmith work was Maestro Jorge, a silversmith of Toledo, who is praised by Don Alonso in his Cantigas—he also mentions the names of Don Lorenzo and Don Niculas as silversmiths of Seville who worked in this period.
The most important example of Spanish silversmith's work of the 14th century is the Retablo and Baldaquino of the cathedral of Gerona. Mr. Street, in his Gothic Arch. in Spain, p. 326, describes this work of art in the following manner: "The Retablo is of wood entirely covered with silver plates, and divided vertically into three series of niches and canopies: each division has a subject, and a good deal of enamelling is introduced in various parts of the canopies and grounds of the panels. Each panel has a cinque-foiled arch with a crocketed gablet and pinnacles on either side. The straight line of the top is broken by three niches, which rise in the centre and at either end. In the centre is the Blessed Virgin with our Lord; on the right San Narcisso; and on the left St. Filia. The three tiers of subjects contain figures of saints, subjects from the life of the Blessed Virgin, and subjects from the life of our Lord."
At the base of this Retablo may be read the words—Pere Bernec me feu—Peter Bernec made me. Bernec was a silversmith of Valencia, and in another document he was called Barners. It has been supposed that two other contemporary silversmiths, whose names appear in papers of the cathedral, worked also at the Retablo. Their names were Raimundo Andreu, and Master Bartolomé. Formerly in front of this altar there was a magnificent silver and gold frontal studded with stones, a fine work of the 11th century—which was unfortunately carried off by the French in their invasion of the Peninsula early in the present century, and was probably with other innumerable priceless treasures melted by them. See further details in "Viage Literario de Villanueva," vol. xii. p. 180.
In the Sala Capitular of the Cathedral of Gerona there are three splendid processional crosses belonging to the 15th and 16th centuries; one of them is of enamelled gold, and is undoubtedly one of the most artistic works of the kind in Spain.
Among Spanish art treasures of the 15th century of a historical style must be mentioned the splendid silver throne of king Don Martin de Aragon, d. 1410, still existing in the cathedral of Barcelona; it is covered with chiselled ornamentation, and a band of velvet embroidered with gold and completely studded with precious stones. This throne is carried in the procession of Corpus Christi. The monstrance, a splendid work of art in the Gothic style, ornamented with delicate pinnacles and jewel work, is placed on a fine silver foot and carried on this day in front of this throne. This monstrance is covered also with jewels of great value which almost conceal it, the gifts of royal personages. The fine Gothic silver-gilt cross must also be mentioned, known at Toledo by the name of Guion de Mendoza; it was borne before the great Cardinal Mendoza, and was the first cross placed on the highest point of the Alhambra Torre de la Vela on the day of the conquest, 2nd January, 1492.
The following woodcut represents a processional cross of Spanish work of the beginning of the 15th century, in the South Kensington Museum, No. 514-'73. It is of wood covered with plates of silver-gilt repoussé work. On one side is a rood with the Virgin and St. John. Over the figure of Christ is the word Inri. At the extremities angels in high relief bear the emblems of the Passion. On each side of the figure of Christ are plaques of translucent enamel representing the penitent and impenitent thief, at the foot of the cross the Resurrection and Adoration of the Magi, and above the figure of Christ the Nativity.
SPANISH PROCESSIONAL CROSS. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.
At the back there is a figure in high relief of the Almighty; in the four extremities the emblems of the Evangelists in high relief and enamelled plaques representing the Annunciation, Flight into Egypt, Christ's descent into Hades.
This cross, which is three feet in height, is marked in several places with the name of
| PE DRO | MAR TIN |
A large number of images exist in Spain belonging to this period, and even to an earlier date, chiefly consisting of images of the Blessed Virgin; their garments are formed of silver platings, chiselled and repoussé in the traditional Byzantine style. Among the most remarkable may be mentioned those preserved in the cathedrals of Seville, Pamplona and Astorga. The following document undoubtedly alludes to one of these figures. It is dated 12th May, 1367:—
"I Sancho Martinez Orebse, silversmith, native of Seville, inform you, the dean and chapter of the church of Seville, that it was agreed I should make an image of Saint Mary with its tabernacle, that it should be finished at a given time, and that you were to give me the silver and stones required to make it."
Notwithstanding the poverty of the Spanish monarchs, their personal ornaments were rich and splendid. We find in "Memorials of Henry the VIIth," edited by Gairdner, an interesting description by Machado, the herald or king-of-arms of Henry VII., of the embassy sent to Spain in 1489, to ask for the hand of the Princess Catharine for the Prince of Wales. The account he gives us of the jewels worn by Queen Isabel la Catolica is most interesting. They varied at every interview. In one of these she wore "a line of trimming composed of oblong bosses, of gold, each decorated with fine and valuable jewels, so rich that no one has ever seen the like. She wore round her waist a girdle of leather made in a man's style; the pouch was decorated with a large balass ruby, the size of a tennis ball, between five rich diamonds and other stones, the size of a bean. The rest of the girdle was decorated with other precious stones. Round her neck she wore a rich gold necklace composed of white and red roses, adorned with jewels. Two ribbons were suspended from her breast adorned with diamonds, balass and other rubies, pearls, and other jewels of great value to the number of a hundred or more" (p. 341.)
"After the King came the Queen, mounted on a fine mule, and all the harness of the said mule was adorned with pearls and other precious stones. She was dressed in a robe of a rich woven cloth of gold made in the fashion of the kingdom, and over that a mantilla all spangled with lozenges of crimson and black velvet, and on each lozenge was a large pearl. And with each of these pearls was a rich balass ruby the size of a beech nut, the richest thing that could be seen, no man ever saw anything equal to it. She had on her neck a large necklace, adorned with large diamonds, balass rubies, carbuncles, large pearls, and a great number of other rich precious stones. She had upon her head-dress two balass rubies as pendants, the size of a pigeon's egg, and at the end of the said rubies a large pearl, which jewel was supposed to be worth 12,000 crowns" (p. 348.)
In the specimens described belonging to the Visigothic period, and many others to which we might refer, we find constant similarity in form with silversmith's work of other European countries. It is true that we occasionally meet with Moorish orfèvrerie, and some details, such as filigree work, due to oriental influence; but in general Byzantine, Roman, and Gothic styles were adopted and copied in Spain; and the technical details were the same with those followed in other countries, with the exception of champlevé enamel, which appears to have been almost exclusively used at Limoges in the middle ages. It is interesting, however, and worthy of remark, that important objects are also found in Spain decorated with champlevé enamel, such as the splendid altars of San Miguel in Excelsis (Navarre), and Santo Domingo de Silos (Rioja), and the image of the Virgin de la Vega at San Esteban (Salamanca), three specimens of the greatest importance.
In the Renaissance period, Spanish orfèvrerie enters into its most brilliant epoch, not only on account of the beauty of the form of the objects produced, but also owing to its great richness. Among objects of this period the most important are the Custodias or monstrances of the cathedrals; these are exclusively peculiar to Spanish art. The almost incalculable quantity of silver-work produced at this period is accounted for by the reconquest of the Peninsula from the Moors, the discovery and possession of America, and other circumstances which increased the power and wealth of Spain, and elevated the country to great importance.
We find frequent mention at this time of silversmiths, many of whom came from Germany, France, or Italy, attracted by the large number of works ordered. Many settled in Spain, such as Enrique de Arphe, Jacome Trezzo, Mateo Aleman, Hans Belta, and others. The Spaniards who joined them were greater in number, and not inferior in merit. Silversmiths were already at that time divided into different groups, according to the technical proceedings which each one adopted: plateros de la plata, workers in silver, was the name given to those who worked exclusively in repoussé and chiselled work, and imitated sculpture and architectural models; goldsmiths, those who worked jewels with stones, enamels, and niello-work. Even within these groups were workers in filigree, and those who decorated different objects with painted or mosaic work, atauxia, in the Moorish style. Almost all the most important Spanish towns were large centres of these industries. Leon, Burgos, Valladolid, Cuenca, Toledo, Cordova, and Seville rivalled each other in the number and quality of their productions. The Venetian ambassador, Navagiero, who visited Valladolid in 1527, says, "Sono in Valladolid assai artefici di ogni sorte, e se vi lavora benissimo di tutti le arti, e sopra tutto d' argenti, e vi son tanti argenten quanti non sono in due altri terre, le prime di Spagna" ("Il Viaggio di Spagna," Vinegia, 1563, p. 35.)
In order to complete the study of this subject, it is necessary, besides, to give some notice of the legal dispositions contained in the Municipal Ordinances and in other laws of a more general character.
In Capmany's "Memorias," vol. i., part 3, p. 88, are to be found several statutes concerning the silversmiths of Barcelona from the 14th century, proving the importance of this guild in 1301. At this period three of its members formed part of the town Council. The introduction of a statute of 1489 proves the excellence of the works which they made. "Experience having shown us in past times, and proof existing at the present time, that such clever silversmiths have existed and exist at Barcelona that their works are highly reputed by kings and great people, and held in great honour and estimation in the town itself." The Silversmiths' guild still preserve the folio volumes full of drawings, and the description of the different objects which they presented for the approbation of the jury, during the 16th and 17th centuries. The designs contained in these volumes constitute a most interesting collection of jewels, giving a good idea of the great height of this industry in Barcelona.
Baron C. H. Davillier is about to publish a volume on Spanish silversmiths, in which etchings of several of these designs will be reproduced. In the list of artists which follows I give the names of the most remarkable of those who worked at Barcelona.
In the Municipal Ordinances of Toledo of the year 1494, some laws relating to silversmiths appeared; they are, however, uninteresting. The same thing occurs with the Ordinances of Seville, which were re-compiled in 1526. The guild of silversmiths of Toledo must have been most important, for in 1423 they already formed a brotherhood or guild under the protection of St. Eloy, in which they agreed to help the members of the guild in every way. See "Documentos Ineditos," published by Zarco del Valle, p. 166. The Ordinances of Granada enter more into details concerning the technical proceedings of silversmith's work. These Ordinances appeared in 1538; the work in the Moorish style is described in full detail; it appears to have been preserved in this locality more than elsewhere.
We can judge of the enormous quantities of objects which were made by those still to be seen in Spanish cathedrals and churches, having survived the French invasion of the present century. For full details of the barbarous treatment of these works of art during the French invasion, see Ford's "Handbook of Spain." The expropriations of the Spanish government during the civil wars of 1833 to 1840, and the injudicious law of expropriations of 1869 for the purpose of collecting artistic objects, have brought about the destruction and disappearance of numberless works of art in order not to give them up to the government.
The same splendour and abundance of silver objects of every kind existed in the royal palaces and houses of the grandees. Madame d'Aunoy in her "Voyage en Espagne, Lyon, 1643," p. 109, says: "L'on ne se sert point de vaisselle d'étain, celle d'argent ou de terre sont les seules qui soient en usage. Le duc d'Alburquerque est mort, il y a déjà quelque tems; l'on m'a dit que l'on avoit employé six semaines à écrire sa vaisselle d'or et d'argent. Il y avoit 1400 douzaines d'assiettes, 500 grands plats, et 700 petits, tout le reste à proportion, et 40 échelles d'argent pour monter au haut de son buffet, qui étoit par gradins comme un autel placé dans une grande salle." The splendid silver table belonging to the Marquis of Villaseca at Madrid gives a good idea of the furniture of this time. In the Inventories, a great number of which exist, we find numerous details of silver objects of every kind. In one which was drawn up in 1574, of the effects of Princess Da Juana (MS. folio, Acad. de la Historia), the sister of Philip II., we find mention, without counting the jewels, of a silver balustrade, weighing 121 pounds, to be placed round the bed. The greater part of the kitchen utensils were also made of silver.
Among the most important objects of Spanish silversmith work are undoubtedly, as I have said before, the custodias.
The name of custodia is given in Spain, not only to the monstrance or ostensoir where the Blessed Sacrament is exposed, but also to a sort of temple or tabernacle, of large size, made also of silver, inside which is placed the monstrance, which is carried in procession on Corpus Christi day. In order to distinguish these objects one from another, the name of viril is given to the object which holds the consecrated host; it is generally made of rock crystal, with a gold stem and mount ornamented with precious stones. The small tabernacles are generally objects of the greatest importance both from their artistic and intrinsic value. The description of one of them will be sufficient to give an idea of their construction.
Although a fine custodia existed formerly at Toledo, which we know weighed 164 pounds, Cardinal Ximenez de Cisneros wished a finer one to be made, and caused the plan to be furnished by competition. Diego Copin, Juan de Borgoña, and Enrique de Arphe presented designs; the one by Enrique de Arphe was selected. Arphe began his work in 1517, and continued exclusively employed in this, and without the help of other master silversmiths, until April, 1524, when he gave up the monstrance to the authorities of the cathedral. The silversmith, Lainez, finished in 1523 the gold and jewelled cross which is on the top. It represents a Gothic hexagonal temple, 8 feet high, of three orders, with all the variety and number of necessary architectural details such as pilasters, arches, columns, pyramids, canopies, crest-work, &c., to the closing of the vaulted roof; the whole is percé à jour, and so delicate that it looks like lace. From the roof hang bells and incense-holders of filigree work; in the key-stone are studded precious gems. Carvings in relief, representing passages of the life of Our Saviour, appear on the base of the six pedestals; they are admirably carved. In the centre of the second order is a figure representing the Resurrection of Our Lord. On the pilasters and brackets which appear in the temple there are more than 260 statues of different sizes, all of which are executed with the same skill. This monstrance was mounted on iron wires; and Archbishop Fonseca, wishing that the whole of it should be made of silver, gave orders that Arphe himself should alter it, which he did in 1525, when the total weight was found to be 388 pounds. The viril was then placed inside it, this was made of the first gold brought from America. It is completely covered with precious stones, and was bought by Cisneros from Queen Isabel (the Catholic); it weighs 29 pounds of gold. The tabernacle was ordered to be gilt in 1595 by Archbishop Quiroga; this was done by the Masters Diego de Valdivieso and Francisco Merino. This splendid work of art remains in this state, and may be seen at the cathedral of Toledo; it was most fortunately saved from the rapacity of the French, by being sent to Cadiz during the war. In 1513 the monstrance at the cathedral of Cordova was also made by Arphe, it is similar in style and importance to that of Toledo. Before this, he had also finished the splendid one formerly at Leon, which was destroyed by the French, as was likewise a similar smaller one, also by Arphe, formerly at the Monastery of St. Benito, at Sahagun.
The custodia made by Juan de Arphe in 1587, a Leonese artist, and grandson of Enrique, for the cathedral of Seville, competes with that of Toledo. It is formed in the same manner as a temple, but in the Græco-Roman style, covered with an immense number of statuettes, some of which are upwards of a foot high, and reliefs of all kinds, and delicate ornamentation, worked with the utmost skill. The chapter of the cathedral commissioned the theologian, Francisco Pacheco, to direct the subjects which were to be represented, and when it was finished Arphe published a full description of the monstrance, which he does not hesitate to call "the largest and finest work in silver known of its kind." This opinion is hardly an exaggerated one if we look at this splendid work of art. Its plan is circular, and measures 3½ yards high, and weighs 1082 pounds of silver. For details consult Cean Bermudez' "Diccionario," Descripcion de la Catedral de Sevilla, Museo Español de Antiguedades, vol. viii., p. I.
Besides these two celebrated silversmiths there was another of the same family, the son of Enrique, and father of Juan, Antonio Arphe, an artist also of great merit, who made in 1554 the custodia which still exists at the cathedral of Santiago.
Cean Bermudez says in his "Diccionario," "that in the same manner as the city of Leon gave Spain three illustrious silversmiths, Cuenca gave them other three in the Becerrils," these were Alonso and Francisco Becerril brothers, and Christoval, the son of Francisco. They all worked at the famous and splendid custodia of Cuenca, and between them they produced a most important series of works from 1528 to 1584.
It is extremely difficult to give in so small a space the description of the works and names of the numerous artists on silver and gold work, who worked in Spain during the 16th century. At the present time, notwithstanding the innumerable objects lost, a long list would remain of the specimens which have reached us, and their different forms and applications, still visible in the churches of Toledo, Seville, Zaragoza, Palencia, Santiago, and others of the Spanish peninsula. Some idea may be gathered of the importance this art attained in Spain by looking through the following list of artists who worked in silver and gold, upwards of 450 of whom I have added to the 95 given by Cean in his dictionary. It must be borne in mind that the objects on a large scale which reproduce an architectural model, adopt three styles during the century, all three of them admirable as regards beauty of form. The first is Gothic, a reminiscence of the former time, improved by the change which had already taken place, in drawing and modelling. The second style is known by the name of plateresque, when applied to architecture, and consists in copying the general structure of buildings in the classical style, and applying the orders and pointed arch, while keeping to the profusion of decoration of the earlier period, and modifying the general plan with the object of introducing the greatest quantity of ornamentation. The third style is the Greco-Roman; it is more sober in decoration, and has a greater tendency to keep to the imitation of the classical school.
Besides the objects described, which may be considered as original works and the most important examples of Spanish silversmiths' work, I must mention those which came from South America, chiefly from Mexico, which possess a certain aspect; they consist of carved and repoussé work ornamented with flora of the country adapted in an oriental style; others consist of filigree work, double-headed crowned eagles are frequently met with in the same style as those made at Cordova and Salamanca.
There are interesting specimens at the Kensington Museum which give an excellent idea of Spanish silversmiths' work. Besides those already described attention must be drawn to
No. 305-66. A silver-gilt cross ornamented with foliage, statuettes of saints and the Evangelists with their emblems, Marked NOE/M. About 1560. Height 3 feet 2 inches.
No. 302-66. Silver-gilt chalice, ornamented with foliated scroll work and half figures beaten and chiselled. Marked Estorga. About 1540.
No. 132-73. A silver-gilt chalice, the bowl inscribed outside "+ Sangvis mevs vere est potvs;" the stem is of baluster form, in several tiers, ornamented with brackets and large chatons set with crystal, and a band of cherubim. The foot is chased with masques, festoons, harpies, and birds, and surrounded by eight semicircular projections, on which are an armorial shield and a cross set with emeralds and lapis lazuli. Engraved at bottom "S. I. de Salinas." [See woodcut] With it is a paten dated 1549.
SPANISH CHALICE. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.
No. 481-75. Chalice, silver-gilt; the bowl chased in relief with the instruments of the Passion; on the knop are ten applied figures of Apostles on ground of translucent blue enamel; the foot, which has eight semicircular projections, is repoussé with representations of the Evangelists, cherub and other heads, the Crucifixion, and a shield with the initials L. B. P. around a crown of thorns enclosing a heart. 17th century. [See woodcut, p. 31.]
No. 314-64. Silver-gilt pax of architectural design; in the centre is a group in full relief of the Virgin giving the chasuble to St. Ildefonso. About 1540-50. [See woodcut, p. 33.]
No. 1129-64. Incense holder, boat-shaped, of rock crystal mounted in silver-gilt. Around the rim is a band of guilloche pattern, set with amethysts and garnets; on the lids a band inscribed "Oratio mea dirigatur sicut incensum." About 1540-50.
SPANISH CHALICE. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.
No. 93-65. Silver triptych with suspending chain, the interior painted in oils, the exterior engraved in arabesque. About 1550.
We find that Spanish jewels were as magnificent in the 16th century as were the large architectural objects for ecclesiastical use. One of the most important in richness and artistic merit was the splendid crown belonging to the Virgen del Sagrario at Toledo, which it is deeply to be regretted disappeared in 1868. This crown was made in 1556 by the silversmith Hernando de Carrion; it then consisted of a gold circle with chiselled and enamelled ornamentation, set with pearls, emeralds and rubies. In 1574 Cardinal Loaisa wished to enrich it, and ordered a silver worker called Alejo de Montoya to add to it an upper part, formed as an imperial crown, which Montoya agreed to do by a special agreement. This addition was formed of small figures of angels of enamelled gold, in pairs supporting the side bands, which met in the upper part forming a group of allegorical figures, upon which was placed a spherical emerald, without a flaw, 1½ inches in diameter, which served as a base to the cross. The bands were studded with precious stones and ornamented inside with subjects of the life of the Blessed Virgin in enamel. The height of this crown was 10½ inches by 8½ wide. Montoya took 12 years to do this work—he finished it in 1586. The fine bracelets belonging to this crown, which have also disappeared, were made at the same time by Julian Hernando.
The jewels worn by the Spanish kings and grandees were equally magnificent. In the description of the gems which Prince Don Carlos, the son of Philip II, left to be distributed at his death, are included a sword the hilt of which was of solid gold enamelled in different colours: this Don Carlos bequeathed to the Grand Master of the Order of St. John:—a halberd composed of 27 pieces of enamelled gold in high relief; and a sword with gold mount enamelled in colours with masks, medals and festoons in the Roman style, made by Rodrigo Reynalti. Consult "Coleccion de Documentos Ineditos para la Historia de España," vol. 27, Madrid, 1855. I owe to the courtesy of Count Valencia de Don Juan, the following description of arms made by Toto platero de su Alteza in 1554. [Archives of Simancas legajo, No. 37.] These arms belonged to Prince Don Carlos.
SPANISH PAX. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.
A gold sword, the cross of which is ornamented with masks of white, grey, and black enamel.
A gold dagger, and sword-belt belonging to the same sword, ornamented in a similar manner.
Also a gold sword, belt and dagger ornamented with figures of children in solid gold and enamel.
Although the greater part of these silversmiths were Spaniards, the Milanese artist, Jacome de Trezzo was very celebrated during the reign of Philip II. He made several jewels of great importance for the king and royal family. The splendid tabernacle which was taken by the French in 1810 from the Escorial was one of his finest works; they carried off at the same time the superb shrines, the gifts of kings and princes, and everything they could lay their hands on of gold and silver, loading ten campaign carts. Consult, "Historia del Escorial," by Quevedo. Madrid, 1849, p. 220.
At the South Kensington Museum are several objects of this kind, which will give an excellent idea of Spanish jewel work.
No. 334-70. A gold enamelled pendant, in form of a chained dog, supported on a scroll from which small pearls depend, and suspended by two chains of alternate enamelled and plain links, united to a fastening crowned by a bird.
No. 335-70. Enamelled gold pendant in form of a pelican and her young, enriched with a carbuncle and pearls, and suspended by pearl links.
No. 336-70. Enamelled gold pendant in form of a dog enriched with jewels.
No. 337-70. Enamelled gold pendant, in form of a parrot, set with hyacinth, suspended by chains.
No.340-70. Enamelled gold pendant representing the Virgin of the Immaculate Conception.
Nos. 341 and 342-70. Pendants representing the Virgen del Pilar Saragossa, attended by saints. [See woodcut opposite.]
SPANISH JEWEL, 17TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.
Spanish jewel work does not decrease during the 17th century, the number of artists who worked was very great, and the quantity of objects of all kinds which were made by them to enrich the shrines of churches, and the houses of grandees, was remarkable, although their artistic merit was far inferior to the work of the 16th century. The general decay of art, which produces in Europe the barroco style, appears in Spain more exaggerated and to a greater extent than elsewhere. The objects made during this period reproduce until the beginning of the 18th century the lines and extravagant ornamentation which we meet with in architecture, the handiwork however continued to be excellent, and no expense was spared to give an aspect of richness to the objects made.
SILVER DISH. SPANISH, 17TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.
The large quantity of objects of all kinds made of silver, and the quantity also used in wearing apparel, gave rise to constant prohibitions restricting its use from the reign of Ferdinand and Isabel, and even to a far greater extent at the beginning of the 16th century. In a Decree, issued at Madrid in 1594, "it is forbidden to make or sell cabinets, escritoires, caskets, brasiers, chapines (clogs), tables, commodes decorated with silver, either beat in repoussé, stamped, carved or plain, and whoever makes, sells, or buys them, is to lose them." Notwithstanding this and other restrictions which appeared in the 17th century, this abuse can hardly have been checked, judging by the number of these objects which have reached us, not counting those preserved in the shrines of Spanish churches and cathedrals.
The luxury which was apparent in this century of great decay for Spain will be found in the numerous descriptions which exist of different feasts and ceremonies.
A good idea may be had of this style of silversmiths' work from the silver dishes in the South Kensington Museum. An engraving of one of these appears on the preceding page.
BREAST ORNAMENT SET WITH EMERALDS. SPANISH, LATE 17TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.
During the 17th century, jewellery underwent a complete transformation—the proceedings and renaissance forms of the Italian school were abandoned, with all their richness of sculptures, enamels, and variety of stones. Instead of this, jewels were formed of emeralds, diamonds or rubies in gold setting, percés à jour, producing an excellent effect. The exceptions to this rule are the objects in which enamelled work still predominates, a reminiscence of the former century. Among the finest and best examples may be mentioned the gold crown of the Virgen de los Desamparados of Toledo, made in Mexico in the 17th century. It is formed like a basket of flowers, of delicate tracery, and richly studded with fine emeralds. Several most interesting specimens exist at Kensington of Spanish jewellery of this kind, bought at the sale which took place in 1870 of the jewels belonging to the Virgen del Pilar at Zaragoza.
No. 325-70 is a breast ornament of gold scroll open work, with enamelled flowers, set with emeralds. [See woodcut on p. 37.]
No. 320-70, a gold breast ornament with five bosses and seven pendants, set with rose diamonds.
No. 406-73. Breast ornament, gold open strap work and floral filigree, the lower part an oval pendant, set with table diamonds. [See woodcut on p. 39.]
The following fine Spanish jewels of the 17th century in the Kensington Museum are also worthy of attention:
No. 330-64. A pectoral cross, with medallions containing relics.
No. 298-66. Gold filigree cross, within which is an ivory crucifix.
No. 344-70. Enamelled gold pectoral cross set with amethysts.
No. 417, 417A.-69. A pair of earrings of gold open work, branches set with white crystals.
No. 323, 323A.-70. Silver open work earrings set with rose diamonds.
No. 330 to 330C.-70. Four miniature ewers of silver filigree open work, the bodies of Chinese enamelled copper.
No. 1224-71. Silver frame repoussé, with the Holy Dove, and a bleeding heart encircled with thorns.
Models of the baroque or, as it is called in Spain, Churrigueresque styles continued to be copied during the beginning of the 18th century, in the same manner as in the 17th century. At this time, as in the rest of Europe, a reaction begins in every branch of art, due in Spain to the influence of French and Italian artists who accompanied the family of Bourbon. The Academy of Fine Arts of St. Fernando was founded by a king of that House towards the middle of the century, the teaching was reduced to copying Greco-Roman models, such as they were understood at that time.
BREAST ORNAMENT SET WITH DIAMONDS. SPANISH, LATE 17TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.
The great centres which in the 16th century had produced such splendid works of art had almost completely ceased. No great silversmiths remained at Valladolid, Leon, Toledo, or Seville. The only localities which have preserved even to the present day the traditional forms of these ornaments are Salamanca, Cordova, Astorga, and Santiago. Madrid absorbed from the middle of the 17th century the whole of this industry. In Larruga's "Memorias," Vol. IV., will be found every detail given on this subject. Several important establishments for the object of making silver work on a large scale were founded at Madrid, the most important being that of Tomas de Buenafuente, which passed after to Francisco Novi. Two Frenchmen called Isaac and Miguel Naudin established a manufactory in 1772. In each the greater part of the work was machine made. Others were founded to cut and polish precious stones, and mount paste stones. This was done with great skill by Antonio Martinez in 1778, in a building fitted up for the purpose, which still exists opposite the Botanical Garden of Madrid. Martinez was pensioned by Charles III. in Paris and London to study the improvements in this industry. The principal object of the manufactory was to teach the technical proceedings required in order to extend this industry in the country, and supply a school in which machinery, models, drawings, &c., were to be met with. Pupils of both sexes were admitted; machinery was made in the workshops, and Martinez undertook to teach the manufacture of gold, doublé, or steel trinkets, with or without enamel or stones. Sword-hilts, buckles, snuff-boxes, needle-cases, handles for sticks, brooches, necklaces, orders, and other different objects, were made either of open work or enamelled gold.
Inkstands, dishes, dinner services, chocolate stands, cruets, knives and forks, were made of silver in different styles, generally imitating the English manner. [Consult Larruga, "Memorias Politicas y Economicas." Madrid, 1789. Vol. IV., p. 116.]
The results obtained by the manufactory of Martinez were most satisfactory; a large number of apprentices were taught there; but their work was completely French in character; the manner and style of the Spanish school of silversmiths was completely forgotten.
As I have already mentioned, the traditional forms were preserved in some localities which require to be mentioned here in order to finish this account of this industry in Spain. An interesting and varied collection of modern Spanish peasant jewellery exists at the South Kensington Museum. Strange to say, although this collection was formed a very few years ago, in 1870, it would be very difficult now to make another; for owing to the means of communication having been of late years so much improved in Spain, the peasantry are leaving off their national costumes, and substituting in every detail modern fashions. Among this peasant jewellery the silver gilt necklace and reliquaries of Astorga, No. 1114-73, deserve special attention. These necklaces were worn round the neck and part of the body. The neck ornaments of gold and seed pearls made at Salamanca, those of silver gilt of Santiago; the filigree work of Cordova in the Moorish style, and the long earrings of Cataluña wnces of older times.
