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Background to 1066

The year was 1051. King Edward the Confessor had been on the throne for nine years. So far, his reign had been peaceful and he had proven himself to be an able and successful monarch. Since 1045 Edward had been married to Edith, daughter of Earl Godwine, the most powerful nobleman in England. Despite a happy union, rumours abounded that their marriage had yet to be consummated. This created a potentially serious problem; who would succeed to the throne when Edward died?

Edward the Confessor

According to French writers, Edward had devised a solution to this problem; secure the succession by promising the throne to William, Duke of Normandy. The two men were distant cousins and William had visited Edward at his court in England some time in 1051. If William believed then that Edward’s promise would make him king of England, then the events of 1064 would only strengthen his resolve.

On his death in 1053, Earl Godwine’s authority in England passed to his sons, who became leading figures in English politics, ruling much of the nation’s territories. Again, as reported by French writers, King Edward sent Harold, the most powerful of these sons, to Normandy in 1064. If these writers are to be believed, the purpose of this trip was to confirm Edward’s succession promise made to William in 1051.

Harold’s journey to Normandy did not start well; he was shipwrecked north of Normandy, in the region of Ponthieu, and captured by the local count, Guy. According to the Bayeux Tapestry, William rushed to Harold’s rescue after hearing the news of his imprisonment. Harold then accompanied William into battle and was knighted. The Bayeux Tapestry, and other contemporary sources, recount that at William’s palace in Rouen, Harold swore an oath to the duke over holy relics. The exact words of this oath are not recorded, but contemporary writers were convinced that Harold promised to protect William’s claim to the throne and do all he could to ensure his succession. With the promise made, Harold returned to England.

Harold Godwinson, as depicted on the Bayeux Tapestry

January 1066: The Death of a King

King Edward had been sick since November, from what appears to have been a series of strokes. Despite a brief recovery, he fell ill again on Christmas Eve. Although he was able to attend the Christmas Day banquet, Edward’s illness caused him to miss the consecration of Westminster Abbey, his most famous project.

Although the king’s son was often chosen, it was not yet customary in England for the monarch to name his successor. This responsibility was left to the Witan, the king’s council of advisers, who were present while Edward lay dying. Choosing a new king was a serious business and, as Edward’s marriage had not produced a son, the Witan had developed a strict criterion to help them choose the best man for the job. First of all, the new king had to be an Englishman as the Witan did not want England to be ruled by a foreigner. Secondly, he must be of good character and, finally, be of royal blood. The king was free to nominate a successor but the final decision rested with the Witan.

The First Omen?

Shortly before his death on 4 or 5 January 1066, King Edward began to speak. He told those around him of a recent dream where two Norman monks he had once known recounted to him that God had placed a curse on England. One year and one day after Edward’s death, devils would bring fire, sword and war to punish the country for the wickedness of its earls and clergy. The curse would only be lifted when a green tree, felled halfway up its trunk and with one part cut off and taken three furlongs away, would rejoin and grow again.

Stigand, the Archbishop of Canterbury, dismissed his dream as the ravings of a man close to death but others began to worry. After all, Edward was an extremely pious man with a reputation for prophesying the future. But the dream was soon overshadowed by Edward’s next action. He offered his hand to Harold and placed the kingdom of England into his protection. After these important announcements, Edward fell back into a coma and died during the night of 4 January 1066.

The Witan Decide

On 5 January, the Witan unanimously confirmed Harold as the new king of England. Not only was he Edward’s choice but he was the most powerful man in England, of good character, a proven soldier and, above all, he was English. There was no mention of William and the alleged promise that was made in 1051, nor of Harold’s visit to Normandy in 1064.

Thus, on 6 January 1066, King Edward was buried in Westminster Abbey and Harold Godwinson was crowned King Harold II of England.

Edward the Confessor is buried at Westminster Abbey

The Contenders Emerge

Harold may have been crowned the king of England but, on hearing of King Edward’s death, there were other men ready to stake their claim. There was Harald Hardrada, king of Norway, who alleged that his father had been promised the English throne by King Edward’s predecessor, King Harthcnut. The young Edgar the Aetheling, a direct ancestor of King Alfred the Great, was another possible contender for the throne. And who could forget William? His claim rested on a distant blood connection to Edward and the alleged promised made in 1051 and renewed in 1064.

There was little doubt among the English that an invasion was imminent; England was a rich and bountiful country. For the claimants, the throne was a prize worth fighting for. At the forefront of Harold’s mind was the need to secure his position. A day or so after his coronation, Harold travelled to York in the north of his kingdom. There he married Eadgyth, the sister of the Earls of Northumbria and Mercia, Edwin and Morcar, and received oaths of fealty from the local nobility. Harold also began issuing coins bearing his likeness and inscribed with the word pax,meaning peace.

A coin issued by King Harold

February/March 1066: Developments Abroad

The news of Harold’s coronation reached Normandy very quickly and William did not take it well. He was furious that Harold had broken his promise and had himself crowned. Adamant that he was the rightful king of England, there was only one option left for the duke; assert his claim by force.

William, Duke of Normandy, as depicted on the Bayeux Tapestry

Knowing that he could not do it alone, he broached this idea to his magnates and received a mixed reception; some supported his desire to invade from the start, but others were going to need more convincing. According to the French writer, William of Poitiers, they believed that taking the throne of England in this way was an ‘arduous enterprise’ which went ‘well beyond the power of the Norman forces’.

Undeterred by the reaction of his magnates, William took his cause to the highest authority in Medieval Europe; the Pope. Fortunately for William, his embassy was successful and secured papal support for the invasion, including a banner for use in battle. This act of propaganda was immensely powerful; William now had God on his side and nobody would challenge his plans for an invasion. To sweeten his magnates, he promised enough supplies for the invasion and lands in England to all those who would join him. William had now set the wheels in motion; he was ready to bring England under Norman control.