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“Superman Es Ilegal,” by Jorge Lerma, © Copyright 1979 by Peer International Corporation. International Copyright secured. Used by permission. All rights reserved. Translation by Alex and Nina Hidalgo, in Larry R. Juchartz, Elizabeth A. Stolarek, and Christy Rishoi, eds., American Dreams (New York: Pearson Longman, 2009), 227–29.

Epigraph photo: “Superman” and Friends: A Mexican immigrant awaits deportation, circa 1953. U.S. Border Patrol (McAllen, Texas) Official Photograph, File No. 48–7. Courtesy of the National Border Patrol Museum—El Paso, Texas.

A version of chapter 4 appeared earlier and is reprinted with permission of The Regents of the University of California from Aztlán: A Journal of Chicano Studies 34 (Spring 2009), UCLA Chicano Studies Research Center. Not for further reproduction. Versions of chapters 6 and 8 appeared earlier, copyright by the Western History Association. Reprinted by permission. The article first appeared as “The Crimes and Consequences of Illegal Immigration: A Cross-Border Examination of Operation Wetback, 1943–1954,” Western Historical Quarterly 7 (Winter 2006): 421–44.

University of California Press

Berkeley and Los Angeles, California

University of California Press, Ltd.

London, England

© 2010 by The Regents of the University of California

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Hernandez, Kelly Lytle.

Migra! : a history of the U.S. Border Patrol / Kelly Lytle Hernandez.

p. cm. — (American crossroads ; 29)

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-520-25769-6 (cloth : alk. paper) —ISBN 978-0-520-26641-4 (pbk. : alk. paper)

1. United States. Immigration Border Patrol—History. 2. Mexican-American Border Region—History. 3. Illegal aliens—Mexican-American Border Region. 4. United States—Emigration and immigration. I. Title.

JV6483.H45 2010

363.28’50973—dc22 2009039563

Manufactured in the United States of America

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This book is printed on Cascades Enviro 100, a 100% post consumer waste, recycled, de-inked fiber. FSC recycled certified and processed chlorine free. It is acid free, Ecologo certified, and manufactured by BioGas energy.