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1 1. A. John Jowett, ‘Patterns of Literacy in the People’s Republic of China’, GeoJournal Vol. 18, No. 4 (June 1989), 417.

2 2. Chinese National Bureau of Statistics, ‘Basic Statistics on National Population Census in 1953, 1964, 1982, 1990, 2000 and 2010’, http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/Ndsj/2011/html/D0305e.htm.

3 3. Barry Naughton, The Chinese Economy: Transitions and Growth (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2006), 50.

4 4. Ibid., 51, 50.

5 5. Jeremy Brown and Paul G. Pickowicz, ‘The Early Years of the People’s Republic of China: An Introduction’, in Brown and Pickowicz (eds), Dilemmas of Victory: The Early Years of the People’s Republic of China (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2007), 1.

6 6. Andrew Walder, China Under Mao: A Revolution Derailed (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2015).

7 7. See Congressional Research Service, ‘China’s Economic Rise: History, Trends, Challenges, and Implications for the United States’, updated 25 June 2019, 2, available at https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33534.pdf.

8 8. See data at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_GDP_of_China.

9 9. Marie-Claire Bergère, Shanghai: China’s Gateway to Modernity, trans. Janet Lloyd (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2009), 158.

10 10. Mao Zedong, Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung, Vol. 5 (Peking: Foreign Languages Press, 1977), 101.

11 11. Ibid., 402.

12 12. Roderick MacFarquhar, Timothy Cheek, and Eugene Wu (eds), The Secret Speeches of Chairman Mao: From the Hundred Flowers to the Great Leap Forward (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989), 154.

13 13. A. Doak Barnett, Cadres, Bureaucracy and Political Power in Communist China (New York and London: Columbia University Press, 1967), 429.

14 14. See Mao Tse-tung, ‘Report on the Investigation of the Peasant Movement in Hunan’, in Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung, Vol. 1 (Peking: Foreign Languages Press, 1966), 23ff.

15 15. Mark Selden (ed.), The People’s Republic of China: A Documentary History of Revolutionary Change (New York and London: Monthly Review Press, 1979), 240.

16 16. Ibid., 335.

17 17. Denis Twitchett and John K. Fairbank (eds), The Cambridge History of China: Vol. 14: The People’s Republic, Part 1: The Emergence of Revolutionary China 1949–1965 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 87.

18 18. Robert J. Lifton, ‘Peking’s Thought Reform: Group Therapy to Save Your Soul’, in Franz Schurmann and Orville Schell (eds), China Readings 3: Communist China (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1968), 136.

19 19. Alexander V. Pantsov and Steven I. Levine, Mao: The Real Story (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2012), 457.

20 20. Yang Jiang, Xizao (Beijing: Sanlian Shudian Publishing, 1988). Also available in English as Baptism, trans. Judith M. Amory and Yaohua Shi (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2007).

21 21. John W. Garver, China’s Quest: The History of the Foreign Relations of the People’s Republic of China (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016), 29.