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PART I

BUDDHISM IN THOUGHT

Chapter 1

What is Buddhism?

Many people in the past have raised the question, "What is Buddhism?" Innumerable answers and definitions have been given by various scholars, ministers and devotees who interpreted Buddhism in their own way. However, Buddhism is, to me, the guiding light which leads us to know what we really are and what our surroundings are. This insight naturally gives us some orientation when we confront and solve our personal problems which arise out of our surroundings. Here, the inquiries into the existence of God or the after-life are of secondary importance. Our immediate concern is to solve the problems which we encounter. When we can solve them we find nothing but pleasure and happiness, but failure to solve them often entails suffering and sorrow. Although we try to remedy our wretchedness by our own striving or with other's help, we still find something which cannot be cured by our human efforts. At these times we call for religion as a means of relief and salvation. However, religion should not be sought only in our distress but in our normal way of life.

While we engage in our daily activities, we keep to the force of habit and are prone to be idle if no adequate stimulation is given to us. Here we find our natural weaknesses. This realization is called "the awakening to the reality of life." Usually we consciously or unconsciously avoid looking into the reality of life or we are simply ignorant of the problems which have arisen and developed into our suffering and sorrow. Usually when we acknowledge our failure, we are awakened to the reality of life.

Gautama Buddha is said to be the first man who was completely awakened to the reality of life, so we call him "the Supremely Awakened One." He clearly perceived the non-egoness of our life and the impermanency of this world, and freed himself with diligence from the selfish pursuit of fame and wealth and from the attachment to worldly affairs. We wish to become like him, but even though we try hard to do so we painfully realize that it is almost impossible. Although we persevere stoutly, we find many mistakes and failures in our thought and conduct. Therefore, Buddhism provides for us the clear and sound way upon which we can easily and confidently rely and follow.

Then what should we do according to the teaching of Buddhism? First of all, we should realize that we are a part of a larger Self. Our personal goals are not final ends but are stages on the way to reaching the realm of the larger Self. Here the separation of self from other is meaningless. Instead of feeling jealousy, hatred and greed towards others, what we need is mutual understanding and sympathy. To realize the limitation of our capacity and to transcend it, we must concentrate our minds on the work we engage in, trust others, and be faithful to our own words and deeds. Secondly, we should realize that we are being embraced by the Saving Power of the larger Self. When we encounter misfortune, we must clearly observe its cause, and by all means try to get rid of it. If we find no solution at all, we must realize that it is a momentous occurence since everything is subject to change. We should patiently wait until it passes through and anticipate the Saving Power of the larger Self working in us.

Although nothing can be accomplished on our part, we should never be discouraged. In the course of exercising our beliefs, we will surely find hope and courage and gain pleasure in living. Although these exercises have no ending nor have they an effect on our material wealth, just by doing them diligently we are able to lead our life meaningfully and significantly. Such a teaching can be followed and exercised by all of us in the circumstances we find here and now. Therefore, we call this way of life Buddhism and rely upon it wholeheartedly.

Chapter 2

Buddhism for the Modern World

In 1969, the American astronauts of Apollo 11 successfully achieved the first landing on the moon. By making use of highly complicated machinery, they have managed to open a new perspective for man's incessant search for more facts about the universe. This attempt is indeed a giant leap to prove the scientific advancement of mankind. Looking back to the earth on which we live, however, what kind of life are we treading? There are the dangers of constant war, poverty, strife, conflict and tension among ourselves. It seems that there is no possibility of living together in peace. Science has certainly brought us modern contrivances which shorten our labour and give us more leisure in our daily life. However, it does not necessarily solve our life's problems. We are suffering from material, physical or mental burdens, which have shaken the very foundation of our being. Our lives are always threatened by an endless flow of insecurity and fear. The man we met yesterday might have an accident and die today. Tomorrow there might be another war which would end our lives. The possession of an automobile or a house is no compensation for inner insecurity and fear. When we come to realize that material things are necessary but not a primary means to en-rich our lives, we seek something spiritual which will satisfy our mind and body.

The front picture shows the image of Bodhisattva Kannon enshrined at Kofukuji Temple in Nara.

Unfortunately the present world is governed by materialistic civilizations, and spiritual values have receded backwards to the point of self-destruction. Conscientious people are deeply concerned by this fact, and constantly warn the world of the unsuitability of materialistic rule over man. At this moment the rise of a new spiritual civilization is strongly demanded by people. Of course, there are many forms of religion around us which seem appealing to us, but they only approach us indirectly. Some emphasize obeisance to the religious tradition or custom almost to the point of forgetting other aspects of religious life, and others emphasize routine participation in ceremonies or services, the acceptance of dogma and the authority of the church. Their theological doctrines regarding supernatural powers found in healing or miracles are not easily related to our daily life. Therefore, they become increasingly difficult to understand and practice. Those unsatisfied and yet earnest people, who seek some real solution to the many problems of their troubled lives, some solution that will satisfy both their intellect and sentiment, and do not find it in any of the traditional religions, leave religion entirely, hoping to find the answer in the world of their profession or sensual pleasure. However, they fail to find the meaning in it and become violent, sarcastic or nihilistic about everything that happens, and escape to the world of day-dreaming by doing nothing, taking LSD or marijuana, so that they can no longer face the problems of their lives objectively. We must be aware that the Sabbath was made for man, not man for the Sabbath. We must be masters, not slaves, of conventional ways of life. In this sense, Buddhism stands out in glowing relief.

1. Buddhism as a Way of Life

Buddhism is not a system of dogmas nor a church building, but a way of life for people who are molded according to Buddhist discipline. Buddhism is pervasive but formless. For that reason, it is difficult to grasp unless we are a part of it and living within it. This way of life was founded by Gautama Buddha about 2500 years ago. He revealed a unique teaching which had not been manifested by any sage in the world. He himself had bitter experiences with life's problems and through his own struggles found the way to overcome them. This way is called the Oneness of Life and has no exact parallel in other religions.

Gautama Buddha perceived that all sentient beings have in common the desire to live and realize themselves in their own way. All cling to existence and are able to survive only at the expense of others. Therefore, he firmly believes that the way we can survive without hurting each other is only by experiencing the basic identity of all life while remaining distinct from it. Our world is nothing but the manifestation of the Oneness of Life where all beings, animate or inanimate, exist interdependently. On this basic ground of life, man imposes distinctions and separates what is "mine" from what is "not mine." This discrimination arises from attachment in man, called blind craving. According to Buddhism, blind craving differentiates Oneness into a plural world of Manyness, and from there arise conflicts, misunderstandings and frictions within man himself. From this blind craving comes the conscious self, affirming its essential selfishness. Because of man's going against Oneness by affirming the blind craving within, he creates an illusory world of Manyness which is not the real world but a world created in his own imagination.

If we understand the importance of the Oneness of Life, we can partake of other's joy, being happy with and for other's happiness, since we are one; and the maltreatment of another is none other than the maltreatment of ourselves. Oneness is therefore the highest truth and the one who realized this highest truth is called the Buddha. The Buddha is accordingly not the God who creates the universe nor a Supreme Deity with a transcendental authority and power. Neither is He a judge who punishes us nor a jealous God who labels man as good or bad. He is rather the guiding light immanent in the Universe. His immeasurable Wisdom and Compassion give us the insight to see the fragility of our human life and the urge to embrace actively all into the Oneness of Life. Thus, we are potential Buddhas; we and the Buddha are interdependent and interrelated. The significance of this Oneness of Life is achieved by realizing the Buddha in man and man in the Buddha. This is not a mystical nor a speculative experience which only qualified men may acquire, but is a spontaneous experience which is manifested in our daily life. Therefore, this way of life can be treaded by any ordinary man, regardless of race, nationality, sex, position, ideology or character.

There is a Japanese saying, "How light the heap of snow would be, if it were piled on my umbrella." When we are aboard a train and something falls on our head from the overhead rack, we sometimes exclaim "Auch!" and endure the pain because it is ours. However, the reaction would be different if it were others'. Even though theoretically we understand that everything falls down due to the law of gravitation we react in different ways; some blame others and some not. Here is a good chance to know what kind of men we are. Whosoever we may be, Capitalist or Communist, Christian or Buddhist, it does not matter. The possession of fame, power or fortune has nothing to do with the problem which we encounter at this moment. Our immediate concern is to solve our problem here and now. When we can solve it in a satisfactory way, we find nothing but pleasure and happiness, but failure to solve it often entails suffering and sorrow.

Once the Buddha was asked by a monk named Malunkyaputta, whether the world was eternal or not eternal, whether the world was finite or not, whether the soul was one thing and the body another, whether a Buddha existed after death or did not exist after death. The Buddha flatly refused to discuss such metaphysics, and instead gave him a parable. "It is as if a man had been wounded by an arrow thickly smeared with poison, and yet he were to say, 'I will not have this arrow pulled out until I know by what man I was wounded,' or 'I will not have this arrow pulled out until I know of what the bow with which I was wounded was made.'" As a practical man he should of course get himself treated by the physician at once, without demanding these unnecessary details which would not help him in the least. This was the attitude of the Buddha toward the metaphysical speculation which do not in any way help one toward genuine religious progress. For them the Buddha says, "Do not go by reasoning, nor by inferring, nor by argument." A true disciple is taught, "Where there is not the Buddha, do not linger on; where there is, pass quickly by!"

2. Buddhism as an Essential Way of Life

We are indeed unique beings in the universe and our life is really worth living on the ground that we as homo sapiens can understand what we are and what we should be. Our life cannot be substituted nor repeated by someone else, although the transplantation of our physical parts is sometimes possible. Therefore, once we are born in this world, we have to tread our life meaningfully and significantly.

In Buddhism, what is essential for our living is differentiated from the trivials. It is done not through our artificial notion of right-or-wrongness nor good-or-badness, but through our total experience which cannot be transmitted to anyone else. We generally think that words are absolute. We have never been able to break through this condition of understanding; it has been too imposing. But, what is expressed is not the absolute fact. Words are one of the means which can, orally or through written words, be attached to one's total experience. Thus, total experience is the final text for knowing the essential. Of course, it is sometimes difficult to determine what is essential, but those who tread the Oneness of Life can differentiate it from the trivial. After that, what happens to it depends upon what kind of man is working on it, upon his intelligence, his persistence, and his devotion. It depends upon how clearly and completely an individual can understand a situation and see how he is related to it, and then upon his willingness to translate his perceptions into action. The following is a story which gives us a good example of what is an Essential Way of Life.

In the Edo period of Japan, there lived a Buddhist master called Bankei, who supervised apprentices at his Tensho-ji Temple at Fukagawa, Tokyo. It was the custom in those days that the younger sons of devoted Buddhist families be sent to the temple to be trained as future monks. Bankei once had a very naughty boy among his apprentices who was sent to the temple because of his rudeness. The parents disowned him, expecting that he would be reformed if he entered the temple. However, even after that, he did not correct his behavior. From morning till night, he played around and stole things from the temple, and sold them to the nearby pawn shop. Bad reports spread rapidly, and even reached the ears of the members of the temple. Being unable to remain mere spectators, the rest of the apprentices got together and discussed that the master should dismiss him, otherwise the reputation of the temple, the master, and themselves would be harmed. They demanded the master to take action immediately, and he promised to give them his decision some other time.

A few days passed, and it appeared that no decision had been made. The naughty boy did even worse things. The apprentices were disappointed, and urged the master to make a quick decision. He nodded and asked them to wait for one more day. The next morning came; nothing happened to the boy. This time they got angry and with glaring eyes drew close to the master, requesting, "If you do not have any intention of dismissing the evil-doer, we'll leave the temple, sir." The master received them with a smiling face, and finally spoke to them thus, "If you are so determined, why don't you do that?" Hearing such an unexpected remark, they were astounded and immediately questioned him, saying, "Why do you wish to discharge us instead of dismissing the naughty boy?" The master answered with confidence, "Because you are ready to leave the temple any time, but he cannot do that. If I send him away, he has no place to go." Hearing this, they thought the matter over and felt the deep compassion of their master to the boy. The boy happened to pass by and also heard this, and feeling deeply, he finally reformed himself completely.

This story tells us that Bankei thought that the saving of the naughty boy was the most essential thing to do. He clearly perceived that the boy was able to be educated so he intentionally undertook such a risk. For those like Bankei, the most essential thing is differentiated from the trivial, and is consistently carried out in their life time. They are not surprised at anything that happens on the way; they have nothing to do with the trivialities, either by making excuses or finding fault with others. They always have good poise, because they have deep confidence in the essential thing which is eternally unconditioned and unchangeable. Nowadays, however, it seems to be an inescapable trend that people are easily influenced by environmental factors such as tradition or power of wealth, and are easily contented with the conventional way of life. Because of their lack of confidence in the essential thing, they look around restlessly, and always try to "keep up with the Joneses". These other-directed people can no longer be called unique human beings, because they have become the slaves of a materialistic civilization.

3. Buddhism as an Open Way of Life

"Who knows only his own generation remains always a child." This is the word inscribed in front of the University of Colorado Library. Mature people should always open their hearts to the wider world. However, ego centric people are mostly narrow or closed-minded, and they live only in the dim-cell of their darkened world. They do not progress because they have neither eyes to see things as they really are nor ears to hear something which is better than they possess. They are afraid of simply facing reality directly, and try to protect their confined and dead egos and to cover their inferiority and faults by attacking others. For them, Buddhism teaches the Open Way of Life in order to perceive the Oneness of all life.

It is told in a Buddhist scripture that Sudhana, the way-seeker, went out on a long journey in search of the truth by interviewing people of all kinds because he regarded them as his teachers. He thought the truth was not a particular form of activity, nor had it a particular body, nor did it abide in a particular place, nor was its work of salvation confined to one particular people. On the contrary, he thought it involved in itself infinite activities, infinite bodies, infinite spaces, and universally worked for the salvation of all beings. The truth is immanent in us, and at the same time is transcendent from us: there is no boundary of truth. Our capacities are so limited that we must be humble and modest in bridging the gap between the truth and us. When we think that we are everything and almighty, human tragedy occurs. We cannot become masters or slaves of the universe: we should always be on good terms with it.

Nowadays people do not give others a chance to express their own ideas and opinions, nor do they agree with anyone who promotes new or better projects for the enrichment of us all. These individuals mostly favour or protect certain kinds of people who simply follow or agree with them. When they realize that people are not in accord with them or that there are better things found in others, they get angry and begin to abuse them; or sometimes, out of jealousy, they spread erroneous news or plan secretly to create trouble for them. These egocentric people are mostly seeking their own benefit at the expense or sacrifice of others. They satisfy their own ego by dividing and controlling others. For them, more conflict and strife are bound to come, and there will be no peace among themselves. Prince Regent Shotoku, the great advocate of Buddhism in 6th century Japan, wrote a constitution, in which he said, "Do not become angry just because someone opposes your ideas or opinions. Everyone has a mind and every mind comes to a decision and the decisions will not always be alike. If he is right, you are wrong; if you are right, he is wrong; you are not a genius nor is he an idiot. Both disputants are men of ordinary minds. If both are wise men or both foolish men, their argument is probably an endless circle. For this reason, if your opponent grows angry you should give more heed to yourself lest you too are in error. One can seldom attain all he wishes. Therefore, have a complete understanding of the reality you face and view others with tolerance." If each one of us treads the Open Way of Life, we can certainly bridge the gaps between us and be able to promote virtue in order to become much better people in a much better society in the world.

4. Buddhism as a Together Way of Life

It has been said since the time of Aristotle that we are social beings. From the time we are born until we die, we are always under someone's care, and even for a single day we can not live without having others' aid. Not knowing this fact, there is a strong trend among people to take care of themselves and not worry about other fellow beings. Moral values and a sense of integrity and responsibility have been diluted. People are prone to be diverted, separated and finally alienated from their true selves and from others. They do not know that death is approaching them at every moment. And when they realize that death is inescapable and a concrete reality for them, they begin to fuss and cannot do anything but be stupefied. These helpless people have completely lost the meaning of life, and keep on living in the force of habit until the very moment of their death. For those who do not understand their lonesome and wretched life the meaning of love and compassion toward others is nonsense, because they cannot even love themselves. The Buddha once said, "Man's thought can travel everywhere, but nowhere can he find anyone to love but himself. Likewise, others love themselves more than anyone else. Therefore those who love themselves should extend their compassion towards others."

Buddhism has been regarded as a religion of self emancipation for the monks who have abandoned this secular world. It is also, however, a religion of salvation for all mankind. After the Buddha was enlightened at Budhagaya, he never tired of preaching his teaching to the people around him. If his enlightenment was for his own sake, he would not have preached to anyone else. On the contrary, he preached and the number of his disciples rapidly increased. He sent them into the world with the famous exhortation, "Go ye forth, O Disciples, on your journey, for the profit of the many, for the bliss of the many, out of compassion for the world." His teaching prevailed here and there, and yet was not monopolized by privileged monks; nor was it militantly proselytized or were efforts made to force ideas upon unwilling people. His disciples multiplied, and they formed a fellowship, called Samgha, where no distinction of their background was emphasized. They stood on the same footing and were equally treated in accordance with the ability of each individual. They were instructed to endeavour for their own emancipation, and at the same time to share their experiences with others. Such an inseparable accomplishment found an appropriate expression in the term, Tathagata, which means "one who has gone thus" or "one who has come thus." The former means one who has attained enlightenment, and the latter means one who has come into this world to save others. This notion is attributed to the Budhisattva who is still seeking the truth upward and to share it with others. His life is characterized in a famous parable of the lotus in the mud, told in the Lotus sutra; it emphasizes the point that the merciful Bodhisattva who is born in this world is free from the defilement of the world because of his search for truth, just as the lotus flower is untouched by the mud and water in which it blooms. His vow is that he shall not attain enlightenment until every sentient being is emancipated from suffering and sorrow. It is the nourishing and protecting spirit of a mother for her child; it is the spirit that prompts him to sympathize with the sickness of people, to suffer with their suffering. His purpose in life is always sought in this world to identify himself with others though distinct from them. Togetherness is lacking for the people in the present world who fail to identify themselves with anything which is really meaningful to them. Here, we must remember that true love should not be accomplished by looking at each other but by gazing together.

5. A Buddhist Way of Life

A Buddhist is a person who treads the above mentioned trinity, namely the Essential, Open and Together Ways of Life in order to achieve the Oneness of all life. This implies the traditional naming of Three Treasures: Buddha, Dharma and Samgha, which are the main objects of devotion for all Buddhists. In the balancing of these three ways of life is found the legitimate ground for a healthy and sound life although they are sometimes interacting and contradicting each other, when they are sought theoretically.

It is generally said that those who fail to identify themselves with the Three Treasures fall easily into three categories of personality; namely, epileptic, maniac-depressive, and schizoid types of men. The epileptic type of man is mostly adhesive with a strong mind, and sometimes reaches the point of paranoia. The manic-depressive type of man is mostly extrovert with an unyielding spirit, and sometimes reaches the point of hysteria. The schizoid type of man is mostly introvert and faint hearted, and sometimes reaches the point of neurosis. These different types of men are, good or bad, intermingled with each other, and form a particular kind of society or nation in the course of their life history. It seems that when we go to such extremes as paranoia, hysteria, or neurosis, we are prone to become either mad, frenzied, or spiritually dead; there are no alternatives other than these choices. Such an inclination is so deeply rooted in our distorted human nature that in Buddhism we are instructed to always look up the Three Treasures for guidance in order to normalize our onesided character. The Japanese novelist, Soseki Natsume, wrote the novel, "The Three Cornered World" in which he said, "While going up a mountain track, I could not but think the following: When I approach my life rationally, I become harsh. Give free rein to my desires, and I become uncomfortably confined. Pole along in the stream of emotions, and I am swept away by the current. I feel the world of ours to be disagreeable to live in. When the unpleasantness increases, I want to draw myself up to someplace where life is easier. However, when I realize that life will be no more agreeable no matter what heights we may attain, a poem may be given birth to, or a picture drawn."

For those who live in this world, there is no escape no matter how horrible this world is; we have to simply accept it and make a living within it.

Buddhism teaches us more positively that suffering is bliss. Henry Kaiser once said, "I always welcome the bad news, because it makes me stir up." The Japanese novelist, Takiji Kobayashi, said, "Because of darkness, there is light. And those who come out from darkness will really appreciate the existence of light. Our world is not always abundant with happiness. Because of sorrow, there is happiness. Bear in mind that if you want to spend a happy life, you have to taste the bitterness of suffering and sorrow." In our actual life we must painfully realize that encountering problems, desirable or undesirable, is inevitable from the day of our birth, and things do not always go as well as we wish. Often, we have to cope with criticism, hardship, or difficulties when we meet problems. Then, what should we do?

There are three possible ways of solving our problems. The first is direct attack which seems to be the best way to meet them. Most people who succeeded in their undertakings chose this way. This type of man is willing to confront and attack the problem with his own courage and might, and never regret his decisions and actions. A typical example of this type of man is found in the attitude of Musashi Miyamoto, a classical Japanese swordsman. He said, "Under the sword lifted high, there is a hell making me tremble; but attack and attack, and I have the land of bliss." His greatness as a knight is not attributed to his fine skill but to his spirit which made his challengers realize that they were more inferior in skills and motives than he.

However, the majority of us cannot simply, or always follow this way. Therefore, in the second place, a detour is provided for the less strong people. Instead of choosing the way of direct attack, we solve the problem indirectly by adopting a substitute feeling and deed and actively achieve the desired end. William James, an American philosopher, once said, "To feel brave, act as if we were brave, use all of our will to the end, and a courage fit will very likely replace the fit of fear." This detour way certainly helps those who need strength and courage in order to achieve their desired end.

The third method of solving our problems is the way of totally abandoning our efforts. When we are too weak and fail to attack our problems, because of our failure, we are thrown into despair and regret. We are often helpless and blocked in our efforts to solve the problems. In this case, we sometimes react by simply giving up and withdrawing from situations confronting us and escape into the world of day dreaming. We explain our weakness and failure by giving excuses that may be socially acceptable, but there is, in reality, an attempt to hide even from ourselves the true reason for failure. If we have someone whom we can fully trust and rely upon, we can restore our confidence and courage by overcoming feelings of inferiority which may have resulted from failure in the pursuit of solving our problems. Henry Ford once said, "When I cannot handle events, I let them handle themselves." He gives up his hope and effort when he realizes that he has no way of solving the problems. Many people have solved seemingly difficult problems when they gave up their self centered efforts and simply looked upon someone's advice and suggestions. Whosoever he may be, Buddha, God, teachers or friends, the way of self abandonment saves us from the depression of our miserable self.

It is said that there are three kinds of flowers in a pond of lotus, and so in the world there are three kinds of people. Some, rising above the level of the waters or of mankind, have come into blossom; some are already near the light and have only a last effort to make; and some are too deeply sunk in the original mud to come up into daylight. Out of compassion the Buddha preached his teaching of salvation and tried to rescue all of them regardless of their circumstances and capacities. He recommended the way of direct attack for the strong, the way of detour for the less strong, and the way of total abandonment of selfish effort for the weak. It was the Buddha's greatness that he never abandoned rescuing the strong as well as the helpless people, but he extended his helping hands whenever necessity arose.

Buddhism has provided these three ways of solving the problems which are always confronting us. The first way of direct attack can be mainly characterized in the attitude of Zen and Nichiren followers, the second way of compensation found in the attitude of Tendai and Shingon followers, and the third way of self-abandonment is in the attitude of the Pure Land followers. These different types of Buddhism have met the needs of different types of men who seek to solve their own life problems. Whichever we may follow, there is always a common ground on which we stand, namely, the Oneness of Life.

In this way, Buddhism has served its original purpose by introducing many different aspects of its tradition, and people living within it solved their life problems in different ways. Although there exist some discrepancies and misleading elements in the methods adopted to introduce it, Buddhism is not a passive, pessimistic or exotic religion which has in its character feudalistic, magical and mystical elements, but is a part of our heritage brought from the East. It has no connection with the artificial notions of correctness or superiority. It is descriptive and not prescriptive about our life problems. It is practical and peaceful, and is always related to us, our nature, and the dynamics of our development. This I could not possibly find in any other religion. In this sense, I believe that Buddhism will play an important role in the making of more spiritually enriched men if we truly seek the Oneness of all Life in our divided and troubled world.

Chapter 3

Buddhism and Other Religions

Religion is the most important and yet the most neglected thing for people in this contemporary world. Is it not necessary for us any more as a guiding principle for the enrichment of our lives, just like fame, power or wealth? If so, the study and practice of any religion are utter nonsense, and the comparative study of religion is out of the question. Although we can admit that in the past many a bloody strife had occurred in the name of religion, it is an undeniable fact that religion has played an important role in providing the inner security and relief among the people who were molded according to its discipline. Particularly in this divided and troubled world, many people are yearning for the rise of a new spiritual civilization which is trustworthy and applicable to the modern mind. I wonder whether the existing religions will play the same role as in the past to meet the demands of those people. We need to have a unified guiding principle under which each religion has its own place, and where we can find peace and freedom.

There are many religions, institutionalized or not, in the world, and those who believe in them take for granted that their way is eventually bound to win the allegiance of the whole human race. They claim that their way of life is the most desirable and the ultimate one for all to follow, and there seems to be no finality in agreement because of their character of exclusiveness to each other. Here lies tension, conflict, dispute and war. I believe that the truth is one, but modes of its expression are never the same. Therefore, each religion is just like the instrument in an orchestra. The concert cannot go on without the different instruments; no instrument can contribute to the harmony of the whole without regard for the general theme. A noted Japanese Christian Kanzo Uchimura once said, "If all trees would become cherry trees, all birds peacocks, and all people believing the same as I have believed, then I'd wish to get away from this world as soon as possible." An old Buddhist proverb says that there are many paths and roads in forests and valleys, but those who climb up to the hilltop by any of these routes will enjoy the same moonlight on the summit.

Although there are many religions and pseudo-religions in the world, they can be roughly divided into two streams; namely, Semitic and non-Semitic religions. The former is represented by Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and Communism in a sense, and the latter, Buddhism, Hinduism, Confucianism, Taoism and Shinto. I believe that both Christianity and Buddhism are the most talked-about religions in the contemporary world, and are comparatively less attached to any particular ethnic groups or nations, so that in this chapter I would like to take up some basic ideas on the similarities and differences of these two religions, and their peculiarities which would influence the future world. I hope it will not serve as a basis for proof or disproof of superiority or inferiority, but as a tool which we might make use of in our further inquiries into these two religions.

In order to make the study effectively, we must observe three precautions. First of all, we must admit that these two religious phenomena are facts and each is a unique system of thought in its own right. Even though others' views and ideas are hostile or contradictory to ours, we must try to gather and present accurate and undistorted information about them so that we can interpret and compare them impartially. Secondly, we must bear in mind that the comparison of these two religious phenomena must be made on the same footing in the same framework, so that we can avoid partial judgement and disrespect of either of these religions. Thirdly, we must make certain qualifications and clarifications of the terms and concepts found in both religions so that we can avoid the semantic discrepancies and ambiguities of these religious thoughts. Particularly, we must be careful about the translations of Buddhist terms and concepts into English or other Western languages. Such terms as grace, justice, righteousness, prayer, sin, etc. are quite foreign to Buddhism, and yet some Western scholars have misused them as Buddhist terms. With the above mentioned precautions, we can safely proceed to the comparative study of Christianity and Buddhism.

Superficially speaking, there are certain similarities in both religions. They have been founded on the same assumption that there is an ultimate truth, often interpreted as the saving power which transcends the individual. The founders, Jesus Christ and Gautama Buddha, perceived and experienced the ultimate truth and revealed it to their respective followers in their historical and cultural settings. And the teachings they revealed aim at the salvation of all mankind. In order to bring us greater relief they require us to have individual or collective faith and to do certain religious practices. Therefore, from the beginning their teachings have been evangelic, desiring that the rest of the people could be embraced in their teachings. However, these similarities do not necessarily mean identities. There are certain differences in the content of these similar frameworks, namely in perceiving and experiencing the ultimate truth by the founders of these religions. They must be carefully examined in terms of their doctrinal implications.

First of all, the most basic difference between Christianity and Buddhism lies in their concepts of God and Buddha. In Christianity, God is the creator of the Universe in which the world and human beings exist. He is the judge since He is responsible for what He has created in this Universe. He is the Almighty and has the power and authority to intervene the Universal Law of cause and effect. He is the Holy Other so that we can never become God. On the other hand, Buddha is not a god who has supernatural powers but a human being who was enlightened to perceive the ultimate truth. In Buddhism, the known and unknown universe has existed from time immemorial, and though it is in constant flux, nothing can be added or detracted from it due to the law of cause and effect. Buddha is embodied and identified with all sentient beings, and is also subject to that law. He is immanent in us though being distinct from us. Therefore, in Buddhism a personalistic concept of God is quite foreign. The traditional Western reaction has been to label Buddhism as "atheistic." However, Buddhists have their own basic presuppositions in their encounter with the transcendent.

Secondly, in conjunction with the above, there are different views of man in each religion. In Christianity, God created man in His own image by breathing into him an entity called the soul. Because of this soul, man is called superior to the rest of the world. God gives man the right to rule it and use it, since it was made by God to serve man's needs. On the other hand, Buddhism does not talk about man as a distinct entity with an individual immortal soul existing against the rest of nature. Buddhism considers the universe in a unitary way. It does not speak of God and the world, but only of Buddha-nature which is immanent in man and in this mutually inter-relating and inter-penetrating world itself. Therefore, all life is considered most precious and sacred for each speck of life, no matter how insignificant it may seem, has its meaning in the overall universe.

Thirdly, there are differences in the view of man's life problem. In Christianity, the existence of misery and pain is due to man's disobedience or transgression of God's will. Sin originated in the days of Adam and Eve and was a punishment for man's disobedience to God's commandments. Jesus was crucified and redeemed for man's sins, and his whole life was a revelation of God's wish for man's salvation. With this destiny sin-ridden man is helpless unless he repents his sins and is saved by the love and grace of God through faith in Him. So Jesus said, "The time is fulfilled, and the kingdom of God is at hand; repent, and believe in the gospel." His gospel is directed toward the sinners, and not the righteous, and those who have no faith in Him will be punished at the final judgement. On the other hand, the concept of original sin is quite foreign to Buddhism. What Gautama revealed is the Oneness of Life, the experience of the basic identity of all life though having distinctions within it. Because of man going against Oneness by affirming the egoistic Manyness, he suffers. Gautama only taught through his own struggles of life problems, the existence of suffering and the way to overcome it. Suffering is, therefore, a product of man's individual or collective ignorance of the ultimate truth. It is of man's own making due to his imperfections as found in the individual, social, moral and spiritual levels of his existence. Gautama said, "Awake to the reality of life, and know what you are in the context of your surroundings." His gospel is directed toward all who suffer regardless of whether they are sinners or righteous.

Based on these doctrinal assumptions, Christianity and Buddhism have created and developed their symbols, philosophical systems, rituals and disciplines, and have appealed to those who are sinful and suffering. Western scholars in their treatment of religion are primarily concerned with doctrinal problems. But the actual religious life does not consist of doctrines but of other practical elements in every day life. Therefore, we must make clear distinctions between the doctrinal teachings of religions and the experiential content found in the consciousness and behavior of their followers. I have attempted this comparative study of religions in the first sense, and leave the other to the readers, because to study a religion means to experience it, the implication being that there is no other way to study it.

When we glance at the phenomenal side of these two religions, we can not ignore the fact that they are deeply affected by the natural climate and the temperament of those who support them. Some scholars presuppose that Christianity was originated in the vast expanse of cattle-breeding waste land, whereas Buddhism was originated in a fertile farm land. They have spread into the West and East respectively, and formed different cultural patterns among their followers. Accordingly, the characteristic of Christianity is more likely brutal as symbolized in the crucifixion of Jesus Christ on the cross, and that of Buddhism is tranquil as symbolized in the passing-away of recumbent Buddha. Furthermore, it is generally said that the former emphasizes the complete distinction between God and man, subject and object, love and hate, etc. whereas the latter emphasizes the identity of these two opposite components. Therefore, the attitude of Christians seems to be logical, straight-forward and intolerant, whereas that of Buddhists, paradoxical, flexible and tolerant. Although no clear-cut demarcation can be drawn between them, they are just like both ends of the Middle Way.

Florence Kluckhohn, an American anthropologist, once wrote that value orientations are complex but definitely patterned (rank ordered) principles, resulting from the transactional interplay of three analytically distinguishable elements of the evaluative process—the cognitive, the affective, and the directive elements which give order and direction to the ever-flowing streams of human acts and thoughts as these relate to the solution of "common human problems." She classified the relationship between man and nature into three types, namely, Subjugation-to-Nature, Harmony-with-Nature, and Mastery-over-Nature. It seems that the first can be applied to primitive peoples, the second to the Buddhists, and the third to the Christians. This classification cannot be taken for granted as the gradational development of culture from the first stage to the third, but is valid in so far as each man and his society are isolated from, or stand against others. Nowadays the people in different societies or nations are gradually intermingling with each other, and can hardly expand their possibilities without hurting others. Hereby, the mastery of man over or against others is almost impossible: the various ways of thinking and behavior patterns of people must find their places in the context of universal co-existence. At this time, the doctrinal assumption in regard to the differences, if not peculiarities, between religions is less significant than the adaptation of their teachings to our pertinent problems. World-wide secularization is the modern trend, and is in a sense favorable as an attempt to make us known the raison d'etre of true religion. However, if such adaptation means the complete surrender of religion to secularism, it leaves nothing but the destruction of all religiousness which is found in the consciousness and behavior of each religious follower.

Now is not the time to look at each other and discuss matters concerning the inferiorities and superiorities of religions, but to look upon something together which will give us the solution to save our divided and troubled world. Coincidentally speaking, the general theme of the Expo '70, which was held in Osaka, Japan, was "Progress and Harmony for mankind" which seems to be characteristic of Christianity and Buddhism. The synthesis of these seemingly contradictory concepts must be the guiding principle for a new spiritual civilization which we may anticipate in the near future. Until the time comes when the world becomes united, I believe that both religions will play an integral part, as told by British historian Arnold Toynbee, and that world citizens will become Christians when they believe in the progress of human life, and Buddhists when they appreciate the harmony of all life!

Chapter 4

Is Buddhism Atheism?

It has been generally regarded that Buddhism is a kind of atheism since it has no conception of God. Gautama Buddha denied the existence of God or any notion of God which is attributed to supernatural power. According to the definition in the Encyclopedia of Religion (Edited by Vergilius Ferm), "theism" is a philosophical term and connotes something more than mere contrast with polytheism. Its essential idea is that of a unitary, personal Being as the creative source or ground of the physical world, man and value, at once transcendent to nature and immanent in it. Theism is thus contrasted with deism, which implies the total transcendence of God to nature, and with pantheism, which by identifying God with nature becomes a doctrine of exclusive immanence. Atheism is, on the contrary, the denial that there is any god, no matter in what sense "god" is defined or the denial that there exists a being corresponding to some particular definition of god. Frequently but unfortunately, atheism is used to denote the denial of God as personal, and more particularly, of a personal God as defined in a particular creed.

Since the beginning of human history, theologians, philosophers, scientists, and even ordinary people have questioned the existence of God, and expressed their own idea about God. They defined the nature of God as (1) the Absolute Sovereign, (2) the "Alone", (3) the Creator, (4) the first cause, (5) the divine being, (6) the Omniscient, (7) the Ominipotent, (8) Transcendence, (9) Spirit, (10) Entity, (11) the Redeemer, (12) Immanent in the world, (13) Impersonal essence, (14) moral value, (15) Righteousness, (16) Ultimate Reality, (17) Being itself, and so on. There is no agreement on the definition and expression of God among them. However, those definitions can be classified more precisely into two, God and Godhead. God is the God of the Trinity, the Creator, and a personal being who can be described as good, powerful, loving, wise, and the like, and Godhead is the ground of all being, an infinite essence which can be qualified only as "Formlessness." Buddhism does not admit any god in the first sense, so it is called atheism. However, Buddhism admits the efficacy of Godhead as the ground of being, so it is not an atheism in a strict sense. More accurately speaking, Buddhists do not believe in the existence of a God who is defined and accepted by the Christians as a personal being and as a supernatural power.

It must be remembered that these arguments are only possible as a philosophical proposition, not as a religious one. As a philosophical proposition, there are four possible answers to the question of the existence of God: (1) God exists, (2) God does not exist, (3) the idea of God is nonsense, and (4) it is impossible to ascertain whether God exists or not.

First, God exists. There are many ways to prove this statement in direct or indirect ways. Decartes once said that the idea of God is an "idea Innata," that is, it is inherent in all men. History shows that many have been keeping in mind the idea of God. Therefore, God exists and has existed for man. The reason is that there could be no definition without the definition of it, namely, there is no smoke without fire.

Second, God does not exist. The denial seems to arise mainly from the fact that God is inconceivable and unknowable and accordingly the idea of God seems to be merely an illusion.

Third, the idea of God is nonsense, and the question does need to be investigated. If man knows it is nonsense, he is simply negating the discussion of the existence of God from the beginning.

And fourth, it is impossible to ascertain whether God exists or not. This is the skeptic's attitude toward everything. The skeptic tries to avoid any definite answer simply because he does not know what he has experienced.

As a philosophical proposition, we can say that in Buddhism there is a notion of Godhead and therefore it takes the position of No. 1, but as a religious proposition, we cannot say whether there is a Godhead or not. The existence of God or Godhead cannot be proved in a conceptual analysis. It is one's pure experience that grasps the depth of "being" and that becomes "being" itself when one becomes aware of it. So, if we dare to say which standpoint Buddhists would take in the philosophical and religious propositions combined, we would rather answer that "God exists and at the same time does not exist."

We generally think that words are absolute. We have never been able to break through this condition of understanding; it has been too imposing. But, as the Tao-te-ching says, "What is expressed is not the absolute fact." Religious expression starts with the fact that the word is only a symbol. It is one of the means which can, orally or through written words, be attached to one's whole experience. If religious experience is beyond logical reasoning, it is not contradicting to say, "God exists and at the same time does not exist." It is even possible to say, "God exists when we say 'God doesn't exist,'" and "God doesn't exist when we say, 'God exists.' "

Although it is possible to argue about the existence of a god as a philosophical proposition, it is impossible to ascertain its existence as a religious proposition. Religious experience is a purely subjective matter; the awareness of God cannot be demonstrated and transmitted to anyone else since it is a total experience. Meister Eckhart says, "Why dost thou prate of God? Whatever thou sayest of Him is untrue." Thomas Aquinas also said that everything he had written up to that time when he actually experienced God was a mere straw compared with the immediate knowledge which had been vouch-safed to him. Likewise, in Buddhism, direct and personal experience is the final text for knowing God or Buddha. There is no other way to prove his existence.