Читать книгу A History of Sumer and Akkad - L. W. King - Страница 3
ОглавлениеINTRODUCTORY: THE LANDS OF SUMER AND AKKAD
Trend of recent archaeological research—The study of origins—The Neolithic period in the Aegean area, in the region of the Mediterranean, and in the Nile Valley—Scarcity of Neolithic remains in Babylonia due largely to character of the country—Problems raised by excavations in Persia and Russian Turkestan—Comparison of the earliest cultural remains in Egypt and Babylonia—The earliest known inhabitants of South Babylonian sites—The "Sumerian Controversy" and a shifting of the problem at issue—Early relations of Sumerians and Semites—The lands of Sumer and Akkad—Natural boundaries—Influence of geological structure—Effect of river deposits—Euphrates and the Persian Gulf—Comparison of Tigris and Euphrates—The Shatt en-Nîl and the Shatt el-Kâr—The early course of Euphrates and a tendency of the river to break away westward—Changes in the swamps—Distribution of population and the position of early cities—Rise and fall of the rivers and the regulation of the water—Boundary between Sumer and Akkad—Early names for Babylonia—"The Land" and its significance—Terminology—1
THE SITES OF EARLY CITIES AND THE RACIAL CHARACTER OF THEIR INHABITANTS
Characteristics of early Babylonian sites—The French excavations at Tello—The names Shirpurla and Lagash—Results of De Sarzec's work—German excavations at Surghul and El-Hibba—The so-called "fire-necropoles"—Jôkha and its ancient name—Other mounds in the region of the Shatt el-Kâr—Hammâm—Tell 'Îd—Systematic excavations at Fâra (Shuruppak)—Sumerian dwelling-houses and circular buildings of unknown use—Sarcophagus-graves and mat-burials—Differences in burial customs—Diggings at Abû Hatab (Kisurra)—Pot-burials—Partial examination of Bismâya (Adab)—Hêtime—Jidr—The fate of cities which escaped the Western Semites—American excavations at Nippur—British work at Warka (Erech), Senkera (Larsa), Tell Sifr, Tell Medîna, Mukayyar (Ur), Abû Shahrain (Eridu), and Tell Lahm—Our knowledge of North Babylonian sites—Excavations at Abû Habba (Sippar), and recent work at Babylon and Borsippa—The sites of Agade, Cutha, Kish and Opis—The French excavations at Susa—Sources of our information on the racial problem—Sumerian and Semitic types—Contrasts in treatment of the hair, physical features, and dress—Apparent inconsistencies—Evidence of the later and the earlier monuments—Evidence from the racial character of Sumerian gods—Professor Meyer's theory and the linguistic evidence—Present condition of the problem—The original home and racial affinity of the Sumerians—Path of the Semitic conquest—Origin of the Western Semites—The eastern limits of Semitic influence—16
THE AGE AND PRINCIPAL ACHIEVEMENTS OF SUMERIAN CIVILIZATION
Effect of recent research on older systems of chronology—Reduction of very early dates and articulation of historical periods—Danger of the reaction going too far and the necessity for noting where evidence gives place to conjecture—Chronology of the remoter ages and our sources of information—Classification of material—Bases of the later native lists and the chronological system of Berossus—Palaeography and systematic excavation—Relation of the early chronology to that of the later periods—Effect of recent archaeological and epigraphic evidence—The process of reckoning from below and the foundations on which we may build—Points upon which there is still a difference of opinion—Date for the foundation of the Babylonian Monarchy—Approximate character of all earlier dates and the need to think in periods—Probable dates for the Dynasties of Ur and Isin—Dates for the earlier epochs and for the first traces of Sumerian civilization—Pre-Babylonian invention of cuneiform writing—The origins of Sumerian culture to be traced to an age when it was not Sumerian—Relative interest attaching to many Sumerian achievements—Noteworthy character of the Sumerian arts of sculpture and engraving—The respective contributions of Sumerian and Semite—Methods of composition in Sumerian sculpture and attempts at an unconventional treatment—Perfection of detail in the best Sumerian work—Casting in metal and the question of copper or bronze—Solid and hollow castings and copper plating—Terra-cotta figurines—The arts of inlaying and engraving—The more fantastic side of Sumerian art—Growth of a naturalistic treatment in Sumerian design—Period of decadence—56
THE EARLIEST SETTLEMENTS IN SUMER; THE DAWN OF HISTORY AND THE RISE OF LAGASH
Origin of the great cities—Local cult-centres in the prehistoric period—The earliest Sumerian settlements—Development of the city-god and evolution of a pantheon—Lunar and solar cults—Gradual growth of a city illustrated by the early history of Nippur and its shrine—Buildings of the earliest Sumerian period at Tello—Store-houses and washing-places of a primitive agricultural community—The inhabitants of the country as portrayed in archaic sculpture—Earliest written records and the prehistoric system of land tenure—The first rulers of Shuruppak and their office—Kings and patesis of early city-states—The dawn of history in Lagash and the suzerainty of Kish—Rivalry of Lagash and Umma and the Treaty of Mesilim—The rôle of the city-god and the theocratic feeling of the time—Early struggles of Kish for supremacy—Connotation of royal titles in the early Sumerian period—Ur-Ninâ the founder of a dynasty in Lagash—His reign and policy—His sons and household—The position of Sumerian women in social and official life—The status of Lagash under Akurgal—84
WARS OF THE CITY-STATES; EANNATUM AND THE STELE OF THE VULTURES
Condition of Sumer on the accession of Eannatum—Outbreak of war between Umma and Lagash—Raid of Ningirsu's territory and Eannatum's vision—The defeat of Ush, patesi of Umma, and the terms of peace imposed on his successor—The frontier-ditch and the stelæ of delimitation—Ratification of the treaty at the frontier-shrines—Oath-formulæ upon the Stele of the Vultures—Original form of the Stele and the fragments that have been recovered—Reconstitution of the scenes upon it—Ningirsu and his net—Eannatum in battle and on the march—Weapons of the Sumerians and their method of fighting in close phalanx—Shield-bearers and lance-bearers—Subsidiary use of the battle-axe—The royal arms and body-guard—The burial of the dead after battle—Order of Eannatum's conquests—Relations of Kish and Umma—The defeat of Kish, Opis and Mari, and Eannatum's suzerainty in the north—Date of his southern conquests and evidence of his authority in Sumer—His relations with Elam, and the other groups of his campaigns—Position of Lagash under Eannatum—His system of irrigation—Estimate of his reign—120
THE CLOSE OF UR-NINÂ'S DYNASTY, THE REFORMS OF URUKAGINA, AND THE FALL OF LAGASH
Cause of break in the direct succession at Lagash—Umma and Lagash in the reign of Enannatum I.—Urlumma's successful raid—His defeat by Entemena and the annexation of his city—Entemena's cone and its summary of historical events—Extent of Entemena's dominion—Sources for history of the period between Enannatum II. and Urukagina—The relative order of Enetarzi, Enlitarzi and Lugal-anda—Period of unrest in Lagash—Secular authority of the chief priests and weakening of the patesiate—Struggles for the succession—The sealings of Lugal-anda and his wife—Break in traditions inaugurated by Urukagina—Causes of an increase in officialdom and oppression—The privileges of the city-god usurped by the patesi and his palace—Tax-gatherers and inspectors "down to the sea"—Misappropriation of sacred lands and temple-property, and corruption of the priesthood—The reforms of Urukagina—Abolition of unnecessary posts and stamping out of abuses—Revision of burial fees—Penalties for theft and protection for the poorer classes—Abolition of diviner's fees and regulation of divorce—The laws of Urukagina and the Sumerian origin of Hammurabi's Code—Urukagina's relations to other cities—Effect of his reforms on the stability of the state—The fall of Lagash—157
EARLY RULERS OF SUMER AND KINGS OF KISH
Close of an epoch in Sumerian history—Increase in the power of Umma and transference of the capital to Erech—Extent of Lugal-zaggisi's empire, and his expedition to the Mediterranean coast—Period of Lugal-kigub-nidudu and Lugal-kisalsi—The dual kingdom of Erech and Ur—Eushagkushanna of Sumer and his struggle with Kish—Confederation of Kish and Opis—Enbi-Ishtar of Kish and a temporary check to Semitic expansion southwards—The later kingdom of Kish—Date of Urumush and extent of his empire—Economic conditions in Akkad as revealed by the Obelisk of Manishtusu—Period of Manishtusu's reign and his military expeditions—His statues from Susa—Elam and the earlier Semites—A period of transition—New light on the foundations of the Akkadian Empire—192
THE EMPIRE OF AKKAD AND ITS RELATION TO KISH
Sargon of Agade and his significance—Early recognition of his place in history—The later traditions of Sargon and the contemporary records of Shar-Gani-sharri's reign—Discovery at Susa of a monument of "Sharru-Gi, the King"—Probability that he was Manishtusu's father and the founder of the kingdom of Kish—Who, then, was Sargon?—Indications that only names and not facts have been confused in the tradition—The debt of Akkad to Kish in art and politics—Expansion of Semitic authority westward under Shar-Gani-sharri—The alleged conquest of Cyprus—Commercial intercourse at the period and the disappearance of the city-state—Evidence of a policy of deportation—The conquest of Narâm-Sin and the "Kingdom of the Four Quarters"—His Stele of Victory and his relations with Elam—Narâm-Sin at the upper reaches of the Tigris, and the history of the Pir Hussein Stele—Narâm-Sin's successors—Representations of Semitic battle-scenes—The Lagash Stele of Victory, probably commemorating the original conquest of Kish by Akkad—Independent Semitic principalities beyond the limits of Sumer and Akkad—The reason of Akkadian pre-eminence and the deification of Semitic kings—216
THE LATER RULERS OF LAGASH
Sumerian reaction tempered by Semitic influence—Length of the intervening period between the Sargonic era and that of Ur—Evidence from Lagash of a sequence of rulers in that city who bridge the gap—Archaeological and epigraphic data—Political condition of Sumer and the semi-independent position enjoyed by Lagash—Ur-Bau representative of the earlier patesis of this epoch—Increase in the authority of Lagash under Gudea—His conquest of Anshan—His relations with Syria, Arabia, and the Persian Gulf—His influence of a commercial rather than of a political character—Development in the art of building which marked the later Sumerian period—Evolution of the Babylonian brick and evidence of new architectural ideas—The rebuilding of E-ninnû and the elaborate character of Sumerian ritual—The art of Gudea's period—His reign the golden age of Lagash—Gudea's posthumous deification and his cult—The relations of his son, Ur-Ningirsu, to the Dynasty of Ur—252
THE DYNASTY OF UR AND THE KINGDOM OF SUMER AND AKKAD
The part taken by Ur against Semitic domination in an earlier age, and her subsequent history—Organization of her resources under Ur-Engur—His claim to have founded the kingdom of Sumer and Akkad—The subjugation of Akkad by Dungi and the Sumerian national revival—Contrast in Dungi's treatment of Babylon and Eridu—Further evidence of Sumerian reaction—The conquests of Dungi's earlier years and his acquisition of regions formerly held by Akkad—His adoption of the bow as a national weapon—His Elamite campaigns and the difficulty in retaining control of conquered provinces—His change of title and assumption of divine rank—Survival of Semitic influence in Elam under Sumerian domination—Character of Dungi's Elamite administration—His reforms in the official weight-standards and the system of time-reckoning—Continuation of Dungi's policy by his successors—The cult of the reigning monarch carried to extravagant lengths—Results of administrative centralization when accompanied by a complete delegation of authority by the king—Plurality of offices and provincial misgovernment the principal causes of a decline in the power of Ur—278
THE EARLIER RULERS OF ELAM, THE DYNASTY OF ISIN, AND THE RISE OF BABYLON
Continuity of the kingdom of Sumer and Akkad and the racial character of the kings of Isin—The Elamite invasion which put an end to the Dynasty of Ur—Native rulers of Elam represented by the dynasties of Khutran-tepti and Ebarti—Evidence that a change in titles did not reflect a revolution in the political condition of Elam—No period of Elamite control in Babylonia followed the fall of Ur—Sources for the history of the Dynasty of Isin—The family of Ishbi-Ura and the cause of a break in the succession—Rise of an independent kingdom in Larsa and Ur, and the possibility of a second Elamite invasion—The family of Ur-Ninib followed by a period of unrest in Isin—Relation of the Dynasty of Isin to that of Babylon—The suggested Amorite invasion in the time of Libit-Ishtar disproved—The capture of Isin in Sin-muballit's reign an episode in the war of Babylon with Larsa—The last kings of Isin and the foundation of the Babylonian Monarchy—Position of Babylon in the later historical periods, and the close of the independent political career of the Sumerians as a race—The survival of their cultural influence—303
THE CULTURAL INFLUENCE OF SUMER IN EGYPT, ASIA AND THE WEST
Relations of Sumer and Akkad with other lands—Cultural influences, carried by the great trade-routes, often independent of political contact—The prehistoric relationship of Sumerian culture to that of Egypt—Alleged traces of strong cultural influence—The hypothesis of a Semitic invasion of Upper Egypt in the light of more recent excavations—Character of the Neolithic and early dynastic cultures of Egypt, as deduced from a study of the early graves and their contents—Changes which may be traced to improvements in technical skill—Confirmation from a study of the skulls—Native origin of the Egyptian system of writing and absence of Babylonian influence—Misleading character of other cultural comparisons—Problem of the bulbous mace-head and the stone cylindrical seal—Prehistoric migrations of the cylinder—Semitic elements in Egyptian civilization—Syria a link in the historic period between the Euphrates and the Nile—Relations of Elam and Sumer—Evidence of early Semitic influence in Elamite culture and proof of its persistence—Elam prior to the Semitic conquest—The Proto-Elamite script of independent development—Its disappearance paralleled by that of the Hittite hieroglyphs—Character of the earlier strata of the mounds at Susa and presence of Neolithic remains—The prehistoric pottery of Susa and Mussian—Improbability of suggested connections between the cultures of Elam and of predynastic Egypt—More convincing parallels in Asia Minor and Russian Turkestan—Relation of the prehistoric peoples of Elam to the Elamites of history—The Neolithic settlement at Nineveh and the prehistoric cultures of Western Asia—Importance of Syria in the spread of Babylonian culture westward—The extent of early Babylonian influence in Cyprus, Crete, and the area of Aegean civilization—321
I. Recent Explorations in Turkestan in their Relation to the Sumerian Problem—351
II. A Chronological List of the Kings and Rulers of Sumer and Akkad—359
INDEX—363
LIST OF PLATES
I. Stele of Narâm-Sin, representing the king and his allies in triumph over their enemie—Frontispiece
II. Doorway of a building at Tello erected by Gudea; on the left is a later building of the Seleucid Era 20
III. Outer face of a foundation-wall at Tello, built by Ur-Bau 26
IV. Limestone figure of an early Sumerian patesi, or high official 40
V. Fragment of Sumerian sculpture representing scenes of worship 52
VI. The Blau monuments 62
VII. Diorite statue of Gudea, represented as the architect of the temple of Gatumdug 66
VIII. Clay relief stamped with the figure of a Babylonian hero, and fragment of limestone sculptured in relief; both objects illustrate the symbol of the spouting vase 72
IX. Impressions of early cylinder-seals, engraved with scenes representing heroes and mythological beings in conflict with lions and bulls 76
X. South-eastern facade of a building at Tello, erected by Ur-Ninâ 90
XI. Limestone figures of early Sumerian rulers 102
XII. Plaques of Ur-Ninâ and of Dudu 111
XIII. Portion of these "Stele of the Vultures" sculptured with scenes representing Eannatum leading his troops in battle and on the march 124
XIV. The burial of the dead after battle 138
XV. Portion of a black basalt mortar bearing an inscription of Eannatum 146
XVI. Brick of Eannatum, recording his genealogy and conquests and commemorating the sinking of a well in the temple of Ningirsu 154
XVII. Marble gate-socket, bearing an inscription of Entemena 162
XVIII. Silver vase dedicated to the god Ningirsu by Entemena 168
XIX. Mace-heads and part of a diorite statuette dedicated to various deities 206
XX. Mace-head dedicated to the Sun-god by Shar-Gani-sharri, and other votive objects 218
XXI. Cruciform stone object inscribed with a votive text of an early Semitic king of Kish 224
XXII. Impressions of the cylinder-seals of Ubil-Ishtar, Khashkhamer, and Kilulla 247
XXIII. Clay cones of Galu-Babbar and other rulers 259
XXIV. Brick pillar at Tello, of the time of Gudea 263
XXV. Seated figure of Gudea 268
XXVI. Votive cones and figures 273
XXVII. Gate-socket of Gudea, recording the restoration of the temple of the goddess Ninâ 274
XXVIII. Brick of Ur-Engur, King of Ur, recording the rebuilding of the temple of Ninni in Erech 280
XXIX. Votive tablets of Dungi, King of Ur, and other rulers 288
XXX. Clay tablets of temple-accounts, drawn up in Dungi's reign 292
XXXI. Circular tablets of the reign of Bûr-Sin, King of Ur 298
XXXII. Bricks of Bûr-Sin, King of Ur, and Ishme-Dagan, King of Isin 310
XXXIII. Specimens of clay cones bearing votive inscriptions 314
XXXIV. (i and ii) The North and South Kurgans at Anau in Russian Turkestan. (iii) Terra-cotta figurines of the copper age culture from the South Kurgan at Anau 352
ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT
1–2. Figures of early Sumerians engraved upon fragments of shell. Earliest period: from Tello 41
3–5. Later types of Sumerians, as exhibited by heads of male statuettes from Tello 42
6–8. Examples of sculpture of the later period, representing different racial types 44
9–11. Fragments of a circular bas-relief of the earliest period, commemorating the meeting of two chieftains and their followers 45
12. Limestone panel representing Gudea being led by Ningishzida and another deity into the presence of a seated god 47
13. Figure of the seated god on the cylinder-seal of Gudea 48
14–15. Examples of early Sumerian deities on votive tablets from Nippur 49
16. Fragment of an archaic relief from Tello, representing a god smiting a bound captive with a heavy club or mace 50
17–19. Earlier and later forms of divine headdresses 51
20. Perforated plaque engraved with a scene representing the pouring out of a libation before a goddess 68
21. Fragments of sculpture belonging to the best period of Sumerian art 69
22. Limestone head of a lion from the corner of a basin in Ningirsu's temple 70
23. Upper part of a female statuette of diorite, of the period of Gudea or a little later 71
24. Limestone head of a female statuette belonging to the best period of Sumerian art 72
25. One of a series of copper female foundation-figures with supporting rings 74
26–27. Heads of a bull and goat, cast in copper and inlaid with mother-of-pearl, lapis-lazuli, etc. 75
28. Stamped terra-cotta figure of a bearded god, wearing a horned headdress 75
29. Scheme of decoration from a libation-vase of Gudea, made of dark green steatite and originally inlaid with shell 76
30. Convex panel of shell from the side of a cup, engraved with a scene representing a lion attacking a bull 79
31–33. Fragments of shell engraved with animal forms, which illustrate the growth of a naturalistic treatment in Sumerian design 80
34–37. Panels of mother-of-pearl engraved with Sumerian designs, which were employed for inlaying the handles of daggers 82
38. Archaic plaque from Tello, engraved in low relief with a scene of adoration 94
39. Figure of Lupad, a high official of the city of Umma 96
40. Statue of Esar, King of Adah 97
41. Emblems of Lagash and of the god Ningirsu 98
42. Mace-head dedicated to Ningirsu by Mesilim, King of Kish 99
43. Early Sumerian figure of a woman, showing the Sumerian dress and the method of doing the hair 112
44. Plaque of Ur-Ninâ, King of Lagash 113
45. Portion of a plaque of Ur-Ninâ, sculptured with representations of his sons and the high officials of his court 114
46. Part of the Stele of the Vultures representing Ningirsu clubbing the enemies of Lagash in his net 131
47. Part of the Stele of the Vultures sculptured with a sacrificial scene which took place at the burial of the dead after battle 140
48. Part of the Stele of the Vultures representing Eannatum deciding the fate of prisoners taken in battle 141
49–51. Details from the engravings upon Entemena's silver vase 167
52–53. Seal-impression of Lugal-anda, patesi of Lagash, with reconstruction of the cylinder-seal 173
54–55. A second seal-impression of Lugal-anda, with reconstruction of the cylinder 175
56. White marble vase engraved with the name and title of Urumush, King of Kish 204
57. Alabaster statue of Manishtusu, King of Kish 214
58. Copper head of a colossal votive lance engraved with the name and title of an early king of Kish 229
59. Stele of Narâm-Sin, King of Akkad, from Pir Hussein 244
60. Portion of a Stele of Victory of a king of Akkad, sculptured in relief with battle-scenes; from Tello 248
61. Other face of Fig. 60 249
62–63. Copper figures of bulls surmounting cones, which were employed as votive offerings in the reigns of Gudea and Dungi 256
64–65. Tablets with architect's rule and stilus from the statues B and F of Gudea 265
66. Figure of a god seated upon a throne, who may probably be identified with Ningirsu 268
67. Mace-head of breccia from a mountain near the "Upper Sea" or Mediterranean, dedicated to Ningirsu by Gudea 271
68. Designs on painted potsherds of the Neolithic period (Culture I.) from the North Kurgan at Anau 355
69. Designs on painted potsherds of the Aeneolithic period (Culture II.) from the North Kurgan at Anau 356
MAPS AND PLANS
I. Plan of Tello, after De Sarzec 19
II. Plan of Jôkha, after Andrae 22
III. Plan of Fâra, after Andrae and Noeldeke 25
IV. Plan of Abû Hatab, after Andrae and Noeldeke 29
V. Plan of Warka, after Loftus 33
VI. Plan of Muḳayyar, after Taylor 34
VII. Plan of Abû Shahrain, after Taylor 36
VIII. Early Babylonian plan of the temple of Enlil at Nippur and its enclosure; cf. Fisher, "Excavations at Nippur" I., pl. 1 87
IX. Plan of the Inner City at Nippur, after Fisher, "Excavations at Nippur," I., p. 10 88
X. Plan of the store-house of Ur-Ninâ, at Tello, after De Sarzec 92
XI. Plan of early building at Tello, after De Sarzec 93
XII. Map of Babylonia, showing the sites of early cities. Inset: Map of Sumer and Akkad in the earliest historical period 380
