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1.

Baldwin, James. “Down at the Cross,” in Baldwin: Collected Essays,” edited by Toni Morrison (New York: Library of the Americas, 1998), 341.

2.

James Baldwin, “Down at the Cross,” 342.

3.

Abby Ferber, White Man Falling: Race, Gender, and White Supremacy (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998), 32.

4.

Joseph Conrad, Heart of Darkness.

5.

Jeffrey Kaplan and Tore Bjoro, Nations & Race: The Developing Euro-American Racist Subculture (Lebanon: Northeast, 1998).

6.

James Baldwin, The Collected Essays (New York: The Library of America, 1998), 99.

7.

Frantz Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks, trans. Charles Markmann (New York: Grove Press, 1967 rpt. of Peau Noir, Masques Blancs, Paris: Editions Du Seil, 1952), 134.

8.

Fanon, Black Skin, 134.

9.

Kaja Silverman, Male Subjectivity at the Margins (New York: Routledge, 1992), 15.

10.

Carol Boyce Davies, Black Women Writing & Identity: Migrations of the Subject (New York: Routledge, 1994), 7.

11.

Chinua Achebe, “An Image of Racism in Corad’s Heart of Darkness,” in The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism, eds. William Cain, Laurie Finke et al. (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2001), 1785.

12.

Thomas Hale, “Masculinity in the West African Epic,” in Masculinities in African Literacy and Cultural Texts, eds. Tuzyline Allan and Helen Nabasuta Mugambi (Boulder: Ayebia Clark Publishing, 2010), 26.

13.

Tanure Ojiade, “Deploying Masculinity in African Oral Poetic Performance: The Man in Uje.” Masculinities in African Literacy and Cultural Texts, eds. Tuzyline Jita Allan and Helen Nabasuta Mugambi (Boulder: Ayebia Clarke Publishing, 2010), 66.

14.

Simon Gikandi, “African Literature and the Colonial Factor,” in The Cambridge History of African and Caribbean Literature, vols. 1 & 2, eds. Simon Gikandi and F. Abiola Irele (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 295.

15.

Aldon Morris, “Foreword,” in A Question of Manhood: A Reader in U.S. Black Men’s History and Masculinity vols. 1 & 2, eds. Darlene Clark Hine and Earnestine Jenkins (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999), xiii.

16.

Linden Lewis, The Culture of Gender and Sexuality in the Caribbean (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2003), 103.

17.

Antonio Benitez-Rojo, The Repeating Island: The Caribbean and the Postmodern, 2nd edition, (Durham: Duke, 1996), 39.

18.

Adetayo Alabi, Telling Our Stories: Continuities and Divergences in Black Autobiographies, (New York: Palgrave, 2003), 53.

19.

Darlene Clark Hine and Earnestine Jenkins, A Question of Manhood: A Reader in U.S. Black Men’s History and Masculinity, vols. 1 &2 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999), 14.

20.

Craig Wilkins, “Brothers/Others: Gonna Paint the White House Black . . .” in Revealing Male Bodies, eds. William Cowling, Maurice Hamington, Greg Johnson et al. (Bloomington: Indiana, 1992), 199–200.

21.

It is common for most studies and classes of anticolonial activity in the United States to begin in 1945. Yet, I begin in 1940 with the publication of Wright’s Native Son. Several landmark texts were published as a “corrective” to Biggers reactive, destructive representation of African American manhood.